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ibl,!- "S-^
THE RELIGIOUS
QUEST OF INDIA
EDITED BY
J. N. FARQUHAR, M.A., D.Litt.
LITERARY SECRETARY, NATIONAL COUNCIL OF YOUNG MEN's
CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS, INDIA AND CEYLON
AND
H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., Ph.D.
SE ' ETARY OF THE COUNCIL OF THE AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN
MISSIONS IN INDIA
UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME
■^ ■«
ALREADY PUBLISHED
INDIAN THEISM
V,
THE HEART OF JAINISM.
THE TREASURE OF THE
MAGI.
REDEMPTION HINDU
AND CHRISTIAN.
By NicoL Macnicol, M.A.,
D.LiTT. Pp. xvi + 292. Price
6s, net.
By Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson,
M.A., ScD. (Dublin). Pp.
xxiv + 336. Price 7s. 6d,
By James Hope Moulton,
D.LiTT., D.D., D.C.L. Pp.
XV + 273. Price 85. 6rf.
By Sydney Cave, D.D.
(Lond.). Pp. xii + 263. Price
I OS. 6rf.
IN PREPARATION
THE RELIGION OF THE By H. D. Griswold, M.A.,
RIGVEDA. Ph.D.
HINDU ETHICS .
BUDDHISM .
THE RITES OF
TWICE-BORN.
THE
By John McKenzie, M.A.,
Wilson College, Bombay.
By K. J. Saunders, M.A.,
Literary Secretary, National
Council of Y.M.C.A., India
and Ceylon.
By Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson,
M.A., Sc.D. (Dublin), Raj-
kot, Kathiawar.
EDITORIAL PREFACE
The writers of this series of volumes on the variant forms
of religious life in India are governed in their work by two
impelling motives.
I. They endeavour to work in the sincere and sympathetic
spirit of science. They desire to understand the perplexingly
involved developments of thought and life in India and dis-
passionately to estimate their value. They recognize the
futility of any such attempt to understand and evaluate, unless
it is grounded in a thorough historical study of the phenomena
investigated. In recognizing this fact they do no more than
share what is common ground among all mo^lern students of
religion of any repute. But they also believe that it is neces-
sary to set the practical side of each system in living relation
to the beliefs and the literature, and that, in this regard, the
close and direct contact which they have each had with Indian
religious life ought to prove a source of valuable light. For,
until a clear understanding has been gained of the practical
influence exerted by the habits of worship, by the practice of
the ascetic, devotional, or occult discipline, by the social
organization and by the family system, the real impact of the
faith upon the life of the individual and the community cannot
be estimated ; and, without the advantage of extended personal
intercourse, a trustworthy account of the religious experience
of a community can scarcely be achieved by even the most
careful student
II. They seek to set each form of Indian religion by the
side of Christianity in such a way that the relationship may
stand out clear. Jesus Christ has become to them the light of
a 2
iv EDITORIAL PREFACE
all their seeing, and they believe Him destined to be the light
of the world. They are persuaded that sooner or later the
age-long quest of the Indian spirit for religious truth and
power will find in Him at once its goal and a new starting-
point, and they will be content if the preparation of this series
contributes in the smallest degree to hasten this consumma-
tion. If there be readers to whom this motive is unwelcome,
they may be reminded that no man approaches the study of
a religion without religious convictions, either positive or
negative: for both reader and writer, therefore, it is better
that these should be explicitly stated at the outset. More-
over, even a complete lack of sympathy with the motive here
acknowledged need not diminish a reader's interest in following
an honest and careful attempt to bring the religions of India
into comparison with the religion which to-day is their only
possible rival, and to which they largely owe their present
noticeable and significant revival.
It is possible that to some minds there may seem to be
a measure of incompatibility between these two motives. The
writers, however, feel otherwise. For them the second motive
reinforces the first : for they have found that he who would
lead others into a new faith must first of all understand the
faith that is theirs already — understand it, moreover, sympa-
thetically, with a mind quick to note not its weaknesses alone
but that in it which has enabled it to survive and has given it
its power over the hearts of those who profess it.
The duty of the Editors of the series is limited to seeing
that the volumes are in general harmony with the principles
here described. Each writer is alone responsible for the
opinions expressed in his volume, whether in regard to Indian
religions pr to Christianity.
THE RELIGIOUS QUEST OF INDIA
AN OUTLINE
OF THE
RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
OF INDIA^
BY
J. N. FARQUHARjAl.A., D.Litt., Oxon.
HUMPHREY MILFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK
TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY
1920
4'a.otl.'2:,s
S?r!kRi> cotl^
€
MAR 15 1921
TO
MY WIFE
FOREWORD
This book has been written from an overwhelming sense of
personal need. On every occasion when I have tried to think
my way through the history of any one of the chief Hindu
sects or philospphies, or to realize the origin and growth of some
doctrine or discipline, I have found my way barred, because
the religious literature is so imperfectly known. Numberless
friends have expressed in conversation and correspondence the
same feeling of helplessness. In order to deal with any one of
these subjects it would be necessary for the student to under-
take first of all a long and difficult investigation into the
sources.
The Vedic literature has been studied with the utmost care
by a company of brillisuit scholars; certain sections of the
philosophical literature have been critically examined ; the
classical Sanskrit literature is well known ; and portions of
the literature of Buddhism and of Jainism have been carefully
described ; but on the mass of the books produced by Hindu
sects and on great sections of Buddhist and Jain literature
very little labour has yet been expended ; while no attempt
has ever been made to deal with the religious history as an
undivided whole which must be seen as one long process
of development before the meaning of the constituent sects
or religions can be fully understood.
Consequently, the question arose whether it would not be
possible to write a sketch of the whole religious literature
of India. I was under no illusions as to the magnitude and
the difficulty of the undertaking; and I was very painfully
conscious of the slenderness of my own linguistic preparation
for th^ task. On the other hand, I believed that, from the
point of view of the study of religions, what was wanted was
X FOREWORD
not so much fresh critical study of individual books as a clear
comprehensible survey of the literature so far as critical
inquiry, translation?, and the publication of texts have made
it known, so that the student might be able to begin the
study of any part of it with intelligence, and to find his way
without serious difficulty to all the existing literature, modern
as well as ancient, which deals with the section of the field in
which he is interested.
It was quite clear that to bring together all that is
already known about Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain literature,
whether in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, or the modern vernacularv
and exhibit it as one historical development, would be
extremely illuminating. The three religions are moments
in a single religious movement ; and they have reacted on
each other throughout their history. Vernacular religious
books are as truly a vital part of the growth of the sects
as their more formal Sanskrit manuals* are. For a full
understanding of the history, the whole must be envisaged
as one great movement.
I was also conscious that during the last twenty years
a very large number of elements in the religious and literary
history have been illuminated by fresh discoveries. A good
deal of work has been done on the vernacular literatures, and
masses of sectarian works in Sanskrit have been unearthed.
Yet most of these important advances lie buried in notes in
learned journals, in prefaces to texts, in catalogues, in articles
in encyclopaedias, or in obscure monographs. They have not
yet found their way into any text-book of the literature or of
the religions. For example, the problem of the date of the
philosophical Sutras has quite recently been brought much
nearer solution, and the result is a general clarifying of the
perspective in one of the most important periods. Numerous
books, articles, and stray observations have shed welcome rays
of light on these systems and their history. Professor Keith's
Vedic works contain masses of historical and chronological
observations referring to the whole of Vedic and sub-Vedic
FOREWORD xi
literature. Professor Hopkins's book, The Great Epic of India^
throws a flood of light on the religious changes of the time
when the epics were gradually being formed. The serried
phalanx of details exhibited in Gudrinot's splendid thesaurus
has never been worked up into a history of Jain literature.
Numerous works describe or throw light on sections of the
literature of Buddhism ; yet no one has reduced them to a
single ordered narrative. H. P. Sastrfs catalogues of Nepalese
manuscripts, Vidyabhushana's volume on mediaeval logic,
Bhandarkar's work on the sects, and Schrader's volume on
the Vaishnava Samhitas, each contain notable contributions
to religious and literary history. Finally, translations from
various Indian tongues have in recent years brought many of
the more interesting texts within reach of the student, of
religions.
Another consideration which helped me to get over the
feeling that it was extremely rash to undertake such a book was
the fact that I have had personal religious intercourse with
members of most of the modern sects which come under
review, and that, in the ordinary course of my work, I am
able to meet Indian scholars and in conversation to receive
from them detailed information not otherwise obtainable.
Careful students are well aware that, if the religious history
of India is to be understood, each of the leading sects of the
three religions must be described by itself. Yet, if each is
dealt with in isolation, where will the general movement make
itself felt, and how shall we perceive the rise of changes
common to all the sects? Clearly the unity of the history
in all its length and breadth must be regarded as broken
and diversified, on the one hand, by numerous religious com-
munities which, so to speak, lie parallel to each other, and, on
the other, by successive waves of change each of which has
swept over all the communities in existence at the time of its
appearance, and has modified each in some degree. How,
then, were these two forms of variation to be exhibited in a con-
tinuous narrative ? I have attempted to divide the milleniums
xii FOREWORD
covered by the growth of the literature into periods correspond-
ing as nearly as possible to the great waves of change in belief
and practice, and within each period to group the books, as far
as possible, according to the religion, the sect, and the sub-sect
to which they severally belong.
The result of this method of procedure is to throw the
broad changes marked by the periods into bold relief and
to indicate clearly which sects were active within each period ;
but it has this disadvantage that, in the case of every sect
which has been prominent through several periods, the history
is cut up into as many pieces. But this disadvantage is more
apparent than real ; for the student who wishes to deal with
a single community will probably find it a rewarding piece
of work to study first the whole history throughout a number
of periods, and then to re-read consecutively the portions which
deal with the particular community.
The reason why the investigation ends with the eighteenth
century is this, that from that point Western influence began
to act on the Indian mind, and- the new forces thereby released
are still only in process of being revealed ; so that it is not yet
possible to write an account of them in any way comparable
with the other chapters of the book. In my Modern Religious
Movements in India an attempt has been made to sketch the
religious organizations which have made their appearance since
the dawn of the new day.
In preparing the book I have tried to make the narrative
readable, if possible, despite the great compression which is
necessary, if the subject is to be set forth within the compass
of a single volume. I have, therefore, mentioned in the text
only volumes of outstanding importance, and have relegated
all the rest of the detail involved to the Bibliography. Thus
the advanced student had better use the two parts of the
book together. The narrative is meant to give an outline
of the history and to exhibit the position and influence of the
chief masses of the literature and of the leading thinkers and
writers, while the Bibliography is meant to supply lists of all
FOREWORD xiii
the more important religious works, of the best critical books
and articles written on these in modern times and of all
available translations. For two reasons I decided not to give
particulars about editions in the original tongues: these are
so numerous that it would take much space to catalogue them,
and it is clear that, from the point of view of the average
student of religions, books in the original languages are
almost useless.
The text of each chapter is divided up by means of
headings, so as to exhibit the sectarian relationships, and
IS then further subdivided into short sections, consecutively
numbered, to facilitate reference. In the main part of the
Bibliography the books of each sect or school are arranged as
far as possible in historical order, and consecutively numbered,
the dates and the numbers being printed in emphasized type,
so that the chronology may stand out clear and the numbers
may readily catch the eye.
It may be well also to point out the unavoidable limitations
of the work. First of all, the whole of the secular literature
is dropped out of sight. Secondly, since our aim is the study
of the religions, the emphasis falls throughout on the religious
rather than on the literary aspects of the books. Thirdly, our
attention is restricted to the literature as the chief source of
knowledge of the religions, and no attempt is made to deal,
except in the most incidental way, with other sources, epigraphy,
archaeology, art, and what not. Again, while the nature of
the task makes it necessary to say a great deal about the
religions, the work is not a history of the religions but a
sketch of the religious literature. It may also be well to
warn readers that large elements of Indian religion scarcely
appear in our pages at all. Those cults which have produced
no literature are necessarily outside our survey.
I owe a great deal of the most reliable information in the
book to the assistance of friends. The subject is so vast and
involves so much accurate knowledge that it was clear from the
outset that I should have to rely largely on the help of others.
xiv FOREWORD
I owe the greatest debt of all to a number of Indian scholars
who have most generously given me of their very best I sub-
join a list of my chief helpers with the subjects on which they
have given me information :
Mahamahopadhya>*a Vindhyesvari Prasad of the Sanskrit
Library, Benares : The Vedanta and the Smartas.
Dr. Gahga Natha J ha, Allahabad : The Karma Mimamsa.
Dr. Laddu, the Sanskrit College, Benares : The Bhagavatas
and early Marathi literature.
The Rev. Francis Kingsbury, United Theological College,
Bangalore: Tamil literature and the history of the Tamil
Saivas.
A. GovindacharjTi Svamin, Mj-sore City: the Sri-Vaishnavas.
Rao Sahib P. G. Halkatti, Bijapur, and another dis-
tinguished Vira Saiva : the Vira Saivas.
Pandita M. L.Sastrt, Broach and Poona: the Vallabhacharyas.
Prof. Bhagavata Kumara Gosvami ^ Sastri, M.A., Hoogly :
the Chaitanya sect.
Pandita Radha Charana Gosvami- Yidyavagisa, Honorary
Magistrate, Brindaban : the Nimbareas.
Dr. V. V. Ramana Sastri, Tanjore : the later Saiva literature.
Dr. M. Krishnamacharya, TanuKu, Kistna dist. : chrono-
logical questions. ^ '^
Mr. Justice}. L. Jaini, Indore: the Digambara Jain Secondary
Canon.
Mr. P. P. Subramanya Sastri,^ Balliol College, Oxford:
Appaya Dikshita, and Sakta worship among Smartas.
So many Missionaries have been of service to me that I must
not attempt to mention them all.
The late Dr. K. S. Macdonald of the United Free Church
Mission, Calcutta, set about gathering material on the Hindu
Tantras a few years before his death, and persuaded a number
of his friends to analyse or translate one or more Tantras each,
^ He is a lineal descendant of Vaihslvadana, one of the companions of
Chaitanya. See p. 308. ' He comes of a Madhva stem.
' H^ is a lineal descendant of Appaya Dikshita's brother, Achan
Dikshita.
FOREWORD XV
in order to help him in the study. The MS. material which
he left, most obligingly placed at my service by Mrs. Macdonald,
has helped me considerably with the later history of the Sakta
sect in Bengal. These MSS. may be found on p. 389.
of the Bibliography, each described as belonging to the
Macdonald MSS.
I owe a special debt to my friend the late Rev. J. J. Johnson
of the Church Missionary Society, Benares, who passed suddenly
away shortly after my visit to him in December, 1 91 7. It will be
something of a consolation for my heavy loss if I bear testimony
here to his worth. He was thoroughly well known all over India
among Hindu scholars and ascetics for his beautiful Sanskrit
speech and his interest in Hindu philosophy. Every one called
him Pandit Johnson. How often did the three of us meet —
Mr. Johnson, his loved and trusted friend, Mahamahopadhyaya
Vindhyesvari Prasad, a scholar of rare judgement who has been
already mentioned, and myself. We met so because of my
inability to express myself in the classic tongue of India, and
our procedure was always the same. I asked my questions
in English, and Mr. Johnson expressed them in Sanskrit.
I was then usually able to follow the Sastrfs Sanskrit replies,
but if I failed to catch a point Mr. Johnson again interpreted.
Now that he is gone Benares can never again be the same to me.
To the Rev. Dr. James Shepherd, of Udaipur — charming
host and beloved missionary — I owe the settlement of the
date and history of Mira Bal, the Rajput princess whose
lyrics of passionate devotion for Krishna have won her endur-
ing fame.
A pair of Poona friends, the Rev. Dr. N. Macnicol and the
Rev. A. Robertson, have given me most generous help toward
the interpretation of the religion and the poetry of the Maratha
saints and the elucidation of Manbhau problems.
To all others, whether Indians or Missionaries, who have
answered my questions, orally or by letter, or who have led
me to fresh sources of information, I wish to express my
unfeigned gra:titude and thanks.
xvi FOREWORD
My teacher, Prof. A. A. Macdonell of Oxford, read the first
and second chapters of the book in manuscript, and made many
valuable suggestions. For the assistance of his ripe Vedic
scholarship I am deeply grateful. Prof. A. Berriedale Keith
of Edinburgh read the whole manuscript, and sent me a large
number of critical notes which have saved me from blunders,
from dangerous statements, and from reliance on weak evidence,
and have suggested numerous fresh points of view. For such
help no thanks can make an adequate return.
But while I owe much precious information and help to
these scholars, Indian and European, they must not be held
responsible for any statement in the text ; for I have not
accepted all their conclusions. The final historical judgement
in every case is my own. It is therefore quite possible that
my suggestions as to what the history behind the evidence
is in any particular case may seem to them quite unjustifiable.
This is above all likely to happen in the case of the sects.
Dr. Berriedale Keith is certainly of opinion that I have
been a good deal too optimistic in attempting to assign in-
dividual Puranas, Tantras, and Upanishads to the chronological
periods adopted in the book. I have, however, in each case
indicated that the ascription is tentative and at best only
probable; and it has seemed wise even to run the risk of
being discovered in error, in the hope that the tentative
history may stimulate further investigation.
Letters indicating errors or omissions or fresh points of
view will be very warmly welcomed.
To Dr. James Morison, Librarian of the Indian Institute,
Oxford, who has faithfully carried out the long toilsome task
of revising the proofs, I wish to dffer my sincere gratitude.
II Frenchay Road, Oxford.
December^ I9I9«
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION : r to;/. . . . i
i. Rik, I-IX 4
ii. Rik, X; Saman; Early Yajus 15
iii. Brahmanas, Atharvan, Aranyakas 23
II. TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE : j to 2CX) B.c. . 33
i. Transmigration and Karma 33
ii. The Twice-born and their Literature 36
iii. The Epics . . < 44
iv. Systems of Release 51
A. The Upanishads 52
B. Many Schools 60
C. The Buddhist School . ' . . . .62
D. The Jain School 73
III. THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM: 200 B.C. to
A.D. 200 yS
u Hinduism 79
A. The Twice-born and their Literature .... 79
B. The Epics . . 83
C. The Bhagavadgitd .86
D. The Philosophies 92
E. The Didactic Epic 95
F. Vaishnava Material in the Didactic Epic ... 96
G. ^aiva Material in the Didactic Epic . . . .101
ii. Buddhism 103
A. Hinayana ... 103
a, Sthavira Literature 104
b, Sautrantika Literature 106
c, Sarvastivadin Literature 107
d, Mahasanghika Literature ' 109
e, Buddhist Worship no
B. Mahayana .111
a. The Full Mahayana 112
^. The Paradise Mahayana 117
C. Buddhism in China 118
iii. Jainism .119
b
xviii CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
IV. PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS : a.d. 200 to a.d. 550 . 122
i. Hinduism ' 122
A. The Philosophies 122
a. The Karma Mimamsa 125
b. The Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta . . .126
c» The Sankhya 129
d. The Yoga 131
e. The Vai^eshika . . . . . .133
/. The Nyaya 134
V B. The Puranas 136
C. The Orthodox Twice-born and their Literature . 140
D. Vaishnava Literature 143
E. ^aiva Literature 145
F. Brahma Literature 148
G. Durga Literature . . . . . . .149
H. Saura Literature -151
. ii. Buddhism 153
A. Hinayana Literature 154
B, Mahayana Literature 157
a. The Madhyamakas 159
b. The Vijnanavadins . . . . . .160
iii. Jainism 162
A. ^vetambara Literature 163
B. Digambara Literature 165
/ ..
V. THE SAKTA SYSTEMS : a.d. 550 to a.d. 900 . . 167
i. Hinduism 168
A. The Philosophies 168
a. The Karma Mimamsa 168
b. The Vedanta 170
c. The Sankhya 176
d. The Yoga 177
e. The Vaiseshika 177
/. The Nyaya 1 77
^ B. The Puranas 178
C. Smartas and their Literature 179
D. Vaishnava Literature ^ . 181
«. Bhagavata Literature 181
b, Pancharatra Literature 182
1. Tamil^Vaishnavas . . .187
2. The Narasimha^Sect . . . . .188
3. The Rama Sect . . . . . . 189
J
CONTENTS
xix
CHAP. PAGE
V. E. ^aiva Literature • . . . , . . .190
(cont.). a, Pasupata ^aivas .
■ •
1
. 191
I. The LakulIiSas
•
. 191
2. The Kapalikas .
>
. 192
3. The Nathas
■
. 192
b. Agamic ^aivas .
»
. 193
I. Tamil ^aivas
•
196
2. Kashmir Saivas .
> 1
198
F. Sakta Literature . ...
■ (
• 199
a, I'he T*antras
k
• 199
b. Mantra, Yantra, Mudr^
k
. 202
c. The Cult .
•
. 202
G. Saura Literature .
1
. 205
H. Ganapatya Literature .
»
206
ii. Buddhism
>
206
A. The Hinayana
»
. 207
B. The Mahayana .
ft
. 207
a. The Madhyamakas .
> 1
208
b. The Vijnanavadins
> •
209
C. The ^akta Movement
» ■
209
iii. Jainism
» ■
213
A. Svetambara Literature
•
213
B. Digambara Literature
. 215
VL BHAKTI: a.d. 900 to A.D. 1350 .
•
220
i. Hinduism
»
220
A. The Philosophies
I t
220
a. The Kanna Mimamsa
1 «
220
b. The Vedanta
•
221
c. The Sankhya
1
• 223
d. The Yoga .
►
. 223
e. The Vai^eshika . . .
. 223
/. The Nyaya . . . .
» 1
224
\ B. The Puranas ....
I <
. 225
C. Smarta Literature
«
226
D. Vaishnava Literature
•
228
a. General ....
k
228
b, Bhagavata Literature .
» 1
229
I. The Bhagavata Purdna
•
229
2. The Bhagavatas .
1
233
3. The Bhaktas of the Ma
irafhi
i coui
itry .
•
234
ba
XX
CONTENTS
CHAP.
PAGE
VI. 4. The Madhvas .....
. 235
{cant,), 5. Radha
. 237
6. The VishnusvamTs . . . . * <
. 238
7. The Nimbarkas
. 239
c, Paficharatra Literature . . . .
. 240
I. The Sn-Vaishnavas ....
•
. 240
2. The Manbhaus
. 247
3. The Narasimha Sect ....
. 249
4. The Rama Sect
249
E. Saiva Literature
■ 251
a, Pasupata ^aivas
■ 251
I. The Lakullsas
. 251
2. The Kapalikas
. 252
3. The Gorakhnathls ' . ...
. 253
4. The Rase^varas ~
254
b. Agamic ^aivas
255
I. The Sanskrit School of Saiva Siddhanta .
. 255
2. Tamil Saivas
255
3. Kashmir Saivas
258
4. Vira Saivas
259
F. J^akta Literature
265
a. The Left-hand School
265
b. The Right-hand School
267
c. The Bhakti School
269
G. Saura Literature
269
H. Ganapatya Literature
270
I, Dhariua Literature
271
ii. Buddhism
272
A. The ^aktas .
272
B. Buddhist Lands
. 274
iii. Jainism
277
A. Svetambara Literature
277
B. Digambara Literature
281
V1L MUSLIM INFLUENCE, a.d. 1350 to a.d. 1800
284
i. Hinduism
285
A. The Philosophies
. 285
a. The Karma Mimamsa
285
b, TheVedanta
286
c. The Sankhya
288
d. The Yoga
289
e. The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya . . . .
. 289
J
i
VII. B. Reconciliaiion of Systems 390
[coni.). C. The Hindu people aga
D, Smarta Literature 393
E. Vaishiiava Literature 396
a. General 296
. The Bhagavata Community . - 397
2. MaratM Ehaktas 398
3. The Madhvas 302
4. The Vishnusvamis 304
5. The Nimbarkas 305
6. Radha-Krishna Literary Verse . . 305
7. The Chaitanya Sect 307
8. The Vallabhacharyas . - - 312
g. The Bhakia-mald ■ ■ -317
10. The RadhS-Vallabhls . ■ .318
11. The Hari-Dasis - . - .318
12. The Svaml-Narayanis .... 318
i'. Pancharatra 3^9
I. The Sri-Vaishnavas 319
3. The Satams 3^1
3. The Manbhaus 322
4. The Ramanandis 3*3
rf. Reformed 330
1. Kabir and his Influence -330
2. The Kablrpanthrs 335
3. The Sikhs 336
4. The DadQpanthls 341
5. The Lai Dasls 343
6. The Satnamis : 343
7. The BaM Lalls 344
8. The Sadhs 344
9. The Charan-Dasis . . . . .344
10. The iiva-Narayams 34S
11. The Garib-Dasis 345
13. The Ram-Sanehis 345
F. 6aiva Literature 346
a. General 346
*. Pa^upata ^aivas 347
I. The Gorakhnathis 347
c. Agamic ^aivas 349
I. Sanskrit School of ^aiva Siddhanla . . 349
3. Tamil ^vas 35^
XXll
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
VII. 3. Sittars 352
(cont), 4. Kashmir ^aivas 352
5. Vlra'Saivas 353
G. Sakta Literature 353
a. The Left-hand School 353
b. The Right-hand School 357
c. The Bhakti School ...... 359
ii. Jainism . . . 359
A. ^vetambara Literature 359
B. Digambara Literature 360
BIBLIOGRAPHY 362
INDEX .407
• ABBREVIATIONS
USED IN THE NOTES AND THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acworth, BM.
AMG. II.
AMG. V.
AR.
ARAB,
Aninachalam, STT,
Avalon, HG,
Avalon, SP,
Avalon, TGL,
Avalon, TT.
Bamett, HI.
Barth, RL
BEFEO.
Beng.
Bhandarkar CV,
Bhandarkar, EHD,
Bhandarkar, R,
Bhandarkar, VS,
Bhattacharya, HCS,
BL
Bloomfield, A V.
Bloomfield, R V.
BMCTB,
BSOSL.
Chanda, lAR,
Chatterji, HR,
Chatterji, A'^.
Chaukh.
Acworth, Ballads of the Marathds^ London, 1894.
Feer, Analyse du K and jour ^ Annales du Musie
Guimety II, Paris, 1881.
Feer, Traductions du Kandjour^ Annales du Musie
Guimety V, Paris, 1883.
Asiatic Researches,
Annual Report of the Archaeological Department,
Studies and Translations from the Tamils by P. A.,
Madras, 1898.
Arthur and Ellen Avalon, Hymns to the Goddess^
London, 19 13.
Avalon, The Serpent Power y London, 191 9.
Avalon, Tantra of the Great Liberation {Mahdnir-
vdna T), London, 191 3.
Avalon, Tdntrik Texts y London, 1913 ff.
Brahmana.
Bamett, Heart of Indiay a vol. of translations,
London, 1908.
Barth, Religions of Indiay London, 1906.
Bulletin de PJ^cole Frangaise d* Extrhne-Orient,
Bengali. •
Bhandarkar Commemoration Volumcy Poona, 1917.
Bhandarkar, Early History of the DeccoHy Bombay,
1884.
Bhandarkar, Reports on the Search for Sanskrit
MSS,, Bombay. ,
Bhandarkar, Vaisnavismy Saivism df^c.y GRUND-
RISS, 1913.
Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects, Calcutta,
1896.
Bibliotheca Indicay a series published by the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Bloomfield, Atharvaveday GRUNDRISS, 1899.
Bloomfield, Religion of the Veday New York, 1908.
British Museum Catalogue of Tamil BookSy
London, 1909.
Bulletin of the School of Oriental StudieSy
London.
Chanda, Indo- Aryan RaceSy Rajshahi, 191 6.
Chatterji, The Hindu Realism^ Allahabad, 191 2.
Chatterji, Kashmir Shaivismy Srinagar, 1914.
Chaukhamba Series, Benares.
XXIV
ABBREVIATIONS
CIL
Colebrooke, ME.
Comm.
Cowell, SDS.
Corpus Inscriptionaruvt Indicarum,
Colebrooke, Miscellaneous Essays, I. London, 1 837.
Commentary.
Cowell and'Gough, The Sarva-darsana-sahgraha
of Mddhava^^ London, 1908.
Chinese translation.
Deussen, Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophies
Leipzig, 1906.
DciVi^sexit Philosophy 0/ the Upanishads^ Edinburgh,
1906.
Deussen, Sechzig Upanishad's des Veda, Leipzig,
1897.
Deussen, System of the Veddnta, Chicago, 1912.
Dharmasutra.
Mabel DufF, Chronology of India, London, 1899.
Dutt, A Prose English Translation of the Mahd-
nipvdna Tantram, Calcutta, 1900.
Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Xlth ed.
Sanskrit MSS, in India Office, 1887.
Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,
Edinburgh.
English Translation.
French Translation.
Garbe, Indien und das Christentum, Tiibingen,
1914.
Garbe, Sdmkhya und Yoga, GRUNDRISS, 1896.
Getty, Gods of Northern Buddhism, Oxford, 191 4.
Gover, Folk-songs of Southern India, London, 1872.
Govindacharya, Life of Rdmdnuja, Madras, 1906.
Govindacharya,K^Z>. Govindacharya, ETr. of Yatindra Mata Dipikd^
Madras, 19 12.
Grierson, Modem Vernacular Literature of Hindu-
stan, Calcutta, 1889. References to pages.
Griffis, Religions of Japan, New York, 1904.
Griffith, The Hymns of the Rigveda Translated,
Benares, 1896.
Growse, Mathurd^ Allahabad, 1883.
Growse, The Rdmdyana of Tulsi Ddsf ETr.,
Allahabad, 1887.
Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Alter-
tumskunde (Encyclopaedia of Indo-Aryan Re-
search), Strassburg.
Giomale delta Societd asiatica italiana, Firenze.
German Translation.
Gudrinot, Essai de Bibliographie Jaina, Paris,
1906. References to pages.
Fitzedward Hall, An Index of the Indian Philo^
sophical Systems, Calcutta, 1859.
Haug, Aitareya Brdhmana, Bombay, 1863.
Hillebrandt, Ritual- Litteratur, Vedische Opfej- und
Zauber, GRUNDRISS, 1897.
Hoemle, Manuscript Remains of Buddhist
Literature, Oxford, 191 6.
CTr.
Deussen, AGP,
Deussen, PU,
Deussen, SUV,
Deussen, SV.
DS.
Duff, CI.
Dutt, MT,
EB.
Eggeling, SMIO,
ERE.
ETr.
FTr.
Garbe, IC.
Garbe, S V.
Getty, GNB.
Gover, FSSI.
Govindacharya, R.
Grierson, LH
Griffis.
Griffith, /?F.
Growse, M.
Growse, R,
GRUNDRISS.
GSAL
GTr.
Gudrinot.
Hall.
Haug, AB.
Hillebrandt, RL.
Hoernle, MRBL.
ABBREVIATIONS
XXV
Holtzmann, MBH. Holtzmann, Das Mahabharata, Kiel, 1892-5.
Hopkins, GE, Hopkins, The Great Epic of India^ New York,
1901.
Hopkins, ION, Hopkins, India Old and New^ New York, 1901.
Hopkins, RI, Hopkins, Religions 0/ India, Boston, 1908.
Hopyiins, Ruling Caste. J A OS, 1889.
Hopkins, Yoga-technique, J A OS. XX Hb, 333.
H. P. ^astrl, A Catalogue of Palm-leaf and selected
Paper MSS, belonging to the Durbar Library,
Nepal, Calcutta, I. 1905 ; II. 191 5.
The Indian Antiquary, Bombay.
International Oriental Congress.
Indische Studien, 1850 fF.
Italian Translation.
P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, Outlines of Indian Philo-
sophy, Benares, 1909.
foumal Asiatique, Paris.
Jacob, Eleven Atharvana Upanishads, Bombay,
1891.
Ausgewdhlte Erzdhlungen in Mdhdrdshtrl, Leip-
zig, 1886.
Jacobi, Das Rdmayana, Bonn, 1893.
Jaini, Outlines ofjainism, Cambridge, 191 6.
Journal of American Oriental Society,
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society,
J ha, Prdbhdkara School of Purva Mtmdmsd,
Allahabad, 191 1.
Jhaveri, Milestones in Gujarati Literature, Bom-
bay, 1 914.
Jolly, Recht und Sitte, GRUNDRISS, 1896.
Journal of the Pali Text Society,
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Ancient India, London,
1911.
Keith, Aitareya Aranyaka, Oxford, 1909.
Keith, Sdmkhya System, Calcutta, 191 8.
Keith, Taittiriya Samhitd, Harvard, 1914.
Yi^tXiVi^Ay, Hindu Mythology, London, 1831.
Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, GRUND-
RlSS, 1896.
Kingsbury & Phillips. Hymns of the Tamil Saiva Saints, Calcutta, 1920.
Krishna ^astri, SH, H. Krishna SastrT, South- Indian Images of Gods
and Goddesses, Madras, 1916.
Krishnasamy Iyer. Sri Sahkardchdrya, Madras,
Natesan.
Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, Oxford, 1909.
See pp. xiv-xv.
Macdonelt, Sanskrit Literature, London, 1900.
Macnicol, Psalms of Mardthd Saints, Calcutta,
1919.
Hopkins, YT.
H. P. SastrT.
lA.
IOC.
I.St,
ITr,
Iyengar, Outlines.
JA,
Jacob, EA U.
Jacobi, AEM.
Jacobi, R,
Jaini, OJ.
JAOS.
JASB.
JBBRAS.
Jha, PSPM,
Jhaveri, MGL.
Jolly, RS, .
JPTS.
JRAS,
K. Aiyangar, A I,
Keith, AA.
Keith, SS.
Keith, TS.
Kennedy, HM,
Kern, MIB,
Krishnasamy Aiyar.
Macauliflfe.
Macdonald MSS.
Macdonell.
Macnicol, PMS.
xxvi ABBREVIATIONS
Madhava, SDS. Madhava, Sarva'darsana-sahgraha,
MBH, Mahdbhdrata.
MBV. Misra Brothers, Misra Bandhu Vinode^ Allahabad,
1916.
M itra, R. L. Mitra, Sanskrit Buddhist Literature ofNepal^
Calcutta, 1882.
Mitra, Notices, Mitra, Notices of Sanskrit MSS,, Calcutta.
Monier Williams, BIf, Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism^
London, 1891.
Mod, Rev, The Modern Review^ a monthly, Calcutta.
Moulton, EZ, Moulton, Early Zoroastrianism, London, 19 1 3.
Moulton, TM. Moulton, Treasure of the Magiy London, 191 7.
Mrs. Rhys Davids, FEB, Mrs. Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Early
Buddhists^ \jorcAoviy of the Sisters , 1909; of the
Brethren, 1913-
Mrs. Stevenson, Hf, Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, Heart of fainism, Lon-
don, 1915.
Muir, OST, Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts^ London, 1858 ff.
Miiller, ASL, Max M tiller. Ancient Sanskrit Literature^ London.
i860.
Miiller, SS, Max Miiller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy,
London, 1899. ,
Nallasvami Pillai^ SfB, Nallasvami Pillai, Siva f nana Bodham, Madras,
^^95. ...
Nallasvami Pillai, SSS, Nallasvami Pillai, Studies in Saiva Siddhdnta,
Madras, 191 1.
Nanjio. Bunyiu Nanjio, The Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka,
Oxford, 1883. References to entries.
Oldenberg, Buddha, Oldenberg, Buddha, London, 1 882.
Oldenberg, Z6^. Oldenberg, Die Lehre der Upanishaden und die
Anfdnge des Buddhismus, Gottingen, 191 5.
Oldenberg, 7? F. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, Berlin, 1894.
OTF. Oriental Translation Fund of the Royal Asiatic
Society.
P. Purana.
Padmanabhachar, LTM, Padmanabhachar, Life and Teachings of
Madhvacharyar, Coimbatore, 1909.
Pargiter, MP, Pargiter, The Mdrkandeya Purana, translated,
Calcutta, 1904.
Pargiter, PTDKA, Pargiter, The Purana Text of the Dynasties of the
Kali Age, Oxford, 1913.
Peterson. Peterson, Reports on the Search for Sanskrit MSS,,
Bombay.
Pischel, GPS, Pischel, Grammatik der Prdkrit-Sprachen, Strass-
burg, 1900.
Pope, TV, Pope, The Tiruvasdgam, Text, Intro., ETr., Oxford,
1900.
Poussin, Opinions, Poussin, Bouddhist^e, Opinions sur PHistoire de
la Dogmatique, Paris, 1909.
Poussin, V, <Sr* K Poussin, Vasubandhu et Yasomitra, Troisieme
Chapitre ^^P Abhidharmakosa^ London, 1914-18.
Poussin, WN, Poussin, The Way to Niri'dna, Cambridge, 191 7.
^ ABBREVIATIONS xxvii
Powlett, U/wur, Powlett, Ulwur^ a District Memoir^ Allahabad,
1878.
Prak. Prakrit.
Prasad, SBS. Rai Bale^var Prasad Bahadur, Sant Bant Sahgra-
hay Allahabad, 191 5.
Quackenbos, SPM. Quackenbos, The Sanskrit Poems of Mayura with
BdncCs Chandisatakay New York, 191 7.
Rajagopalachariar, VRL T, Rajagopalachariar, The Vaishnavite Re-
formers of Indiay Madras. ^
R. A. SastrT, Anandalahiri. R. Anantakrishna SastrT, Anandalaharty
Palghat, 1899.
Ri A, Sastrl, Lalitd. R. Anantakrishna SastrT, Lalitdsahasrandma, with
Bhaskararaya's comm., in ETr., Madras, 1899.
Rhys Davids, ALB, Rhys Davids, American Lectures on Buddhism^
New York, 1901.
Rhys Davids, BBS* Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories^ London,
1880.
Rhys Davids, BL Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, London, 1903.
Rhys Davids, DB. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha^ London,
1899.
Rhys Davids, HIB, Rhys Davids, History of Indian Buddhism^ Lon-
don, 1897.
Rice, KL» Rice, Kanarese Literature^ Calcutta, 191 8.
Russell and Hira Lai. Russell and Hira Lai, Tribes and Castes of the
Central Provinces^ London, 19 16.
S. Samhita.
S. Aiyangar, TS, M. Srinivasa Aiyangar, Tamil Studies^ Madras,
1914.
Sansk. Sanskrit.
Sarkar, CPT Sarkar, ChaitanyoCs Pilgrimages and Teachings y
being the middle part of the Chaitanya-charita-
amrita in English, Calcutta, 191 3.
SBE, Sacred Books of the Easty Oxioxd.,
SBH. Sacred Books of the Hindus, Panini Office, Alla-
habad. ,
Schomerus, SS. Schomerus, Der Saiva Siddhdntay Leipzig, 1912,
Schrader, IP AS. Schrader, Introduction to the Pdhchardtra and the
Ahirbudhnya Samhitdy Madras, 19 16.
Schroeder, ILK, Schroeder, Indiens Litteratur und Kultur, Leipzig,
1887.
Scidenstiicker, PBU, Seidenstiicker, Pali Buddhismus in Uebersetzun-
geny Breslau, 191 1.
Sen, CC, Sen, Chaitanya and his CompanionSy Calcutta,
1917.
Sen, HBLL. Sen, History of Bengali Language and Literature y
Calcutta, 191 1.
Sen, VLMB, Sen, Vaisnava Literature of Medicteval Bengal y
Calcutta) 1 917.
Sen, VSP, Sen, Vahga Sahitya Parichaya, selections from old
Bengali literature, Calcutta, 191 4.
Seshagiri Rao, SSTM. Report on the Search for Sanskrit and Tamil
MSS,y Madras.
Siddhdnta Dipikd. A monthly magazine, Madras, 1897- 19 13.
xxviu
ABBREVIATIONS
SJM,
SKPA IV.
SMIO.
Sukhtankar, TVR.
Tarn.
Tel.
U.
Vedic Index,
Sanskrit Journal of Madras,
Sitzungsberichte der Koniglichen Preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschajieny Berlin.
Sanskrit MSS, in the India Office, London, 1887.
Suali, Introduzione, Suali, Introduzione alio Studio della Filosofia
Indiana, Pavia, 191 3.
Sukhtankar, Teachings of Vedanta ace, to Rama-
nujay Wien, 1908.
Tamil.
Telugu.
Upanishad.
Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index of Natnes and
Subjects, London, 191 2.
Vidyabhushana, MSIL, Mediaeval System of Indian Logic, Calcutta,
1909.
Vincent A. Smith, Early History of India^ Oxford,
1914.
V. Smith, History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon,
Oxford, 1 91 1.
Walleser, Der dltere Vedanta, Heidelberg, 1910.
Warren, Buddhism in Translations, Harvard,
1896.
Watters, Ou Yuan Chwang, London, 1904.
Weber, History of Indian Literature, London,
1892.
Westcott, Kabir and the Kabir Panth, Cawnpore,
1907.
Whitney and Lanman, A V. Whitney and Lanman, Atharva-veda Sam-
hitd, in ETr., Harvard, 1905.
Wilson, Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus^
London, 1861.
Wilson, Vishnu Purdna, London, 1864.
Wilson, Select Works, London, i86i,
Wilson, Theatre of the Hindus, London, 1871.
Winternitz, Geschichte der indischen Litteratur,
Leipzig, Vol. I, 1908, Vol. IL i, 1913.
Woods, The Yoga-system of Patahjali, Harvard,
1914.
Zeitschrift der deutschen morgettldndischen Gesell-
schaft, 1847 ff.
V. Smith, EHL
V. Smith, HFA,
Walleser, DA V.
Warren, BT,
Watters.
Weber, HIL.
Westcott, Kabir,
Wilson, Sects,
Wilson, VP,
Wilson, Works,
Wilson, TH,
Winternitz.
Woods, Yoga,
ZDMG,
CHAPTER I
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION: ;ir toj/.
§ I. The investigations of the past century have shown
clearly that the people who conquered India and created the
Hindu religion and civilization belonged to that ancient race,
now usually called Indo-European, from which sprang the
Teutonic, Celtic, Slavonic, Italic, Hellenic, Armenian, Persian,
and other peoples. This kinship is visible in the speech of
the invaders,^ in numerous details of their culture,^ and also
in their religion.^ From a comparison of the beliefs and
practices of these many nations it is possible to form some
idea of the religion of the parent Indo-European race. The
basis of the religion was an animistic belief in a very large
number of petty gods, each of which had a special function ;
but the people had already advanced to the conception of
a few glorious heavenly gods (Sanskrit deva^ Latin deuSy &c.),
each a representative of one of the greater aspects of nature.
Sky, thunder, sun, moon, fire, wind, and water were the chief
of this new group of great gods. They were worshipped with
sacrifice, accompanied with potent formulae and prayer, the
offerings being either laid out on grass for the gods to eat or
wafted to them on the fire and smoke of the altar. Ancestors
were also worshipped as powerful beings who from the other
world watched over their descendants. There was thus
already some sort of belief in immortality. ' Magic was highly
regarded and much used. The family was patriarchal in
* Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Language,
* Max Miiller, Biographies of Words,
' Schrader, art. * Aryan Religion', ERE,\ Hillebrandt, RL. i-io;
Bloomfield, RV, 99-149.
B
CHAPTER I
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION: ;ir toj/.
§ I. The investigations of the past century have shown
clearly that the people who conquered India and created the
Hindu religion and civilization belonged to that ancient race,
now usually called Indo-European, from which sprang the
Teutonic, Celtic, Slavonic, Italic, Hellenic, Armenian, Persian,
and other peoples. This kinship is visible in the speech of
the invaders,^ in numerous details of their culture,^ and also
in their religion.^ From a comparison of the beliefs and
practices of these many nations it is possible to form some
idea of the religion of the parent Indo-European race. The
basis of the religion was an animistic belief in a very large
number of petty gods, each of which had a special function ;
but the people had already advanced to the conception of
a few glorious heavenly gods (Sanskrit deva^ Latin deus^ &c.),
each a representative of one of the greater aspects of nature.
Sky, thunder, sun, moon, fire, wind, and water were the chief
of this new group of great gods. They were worshipped with
sacrifice, accompanied with potent formulae and prayer, the
offerings being either laid out on grass for the gods to eat or
wafted to them on the fire and smoke of the altar. Ancestors
were also worshipped as powerful beings who from the other
world watched over their descendants. There was thus
already some sort of belief in immortality. ' Magic was highly
regarded and much used. The family was patriarchal in
* Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Language,
' Max Miiller, Biographies of Words,
' Schrader, art. * Aryan Religion', ERE,-, Hillebrandt, RL, i-io;
Bloomfield, RV, 99-149.
B
Q, THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
character ; marriage was universal ; and sons were ardently
desired.
§ 2. We cannot tell where the home of this ancient race was,
nor at what times and places the great historical peoples hived
off from it ; but we can trace with certainty the invaders of
India, in that stage of their life which immediately preceded
the invasion.^ A people, partly nomadic, partly agricultural,
lived for a considerable time somewhere in Central Asia,
pierhaps just to the north of the Hindu Kush. Finally they
separated into two groups, perhaps by a process of migration
so slow as to leave them unconscious that they had fallen
apart, the one moving through Afghanistan into India, the
other spreading over the . wide territory which bears their
racial name, Iran. This word is simply a variant form of
Aryan, the name used by their brothers, the invaders of India.
We may therefore speak of the period before the separation as
the time of Indo-Iranian unity.
There is sufficient evidence available to enable us to form
a clearer picture of this period than of the far earlier Indo-
European period. Most of our knowledge arises from a com-
parison of the Veda, the earliest Indian literature, with the
earliest literature of the Iranian peoples, viz. the Avesta^ the
sacred book of the Zoroastrians of ancient Persia. A careful
comparative study of the two reveals the fact that the Indo-
Iranian people had advanced beyond the early Indo-European
faith. The religion centres in the heavenly gods and the
animistic divinities are far less prominent. There can be little
doubt that among the gods reverenced werie Varuna, Mitra,
Soma, Aryaman, Indra, the Ai^vins (i.e. the Dioskouroi), and
two semi-divine figures, Vivasvant and Yama. All occur in
both literatures except Varuna, Indra, and the Asvins. These
are not definitely vouched for by the Avesta^ but they are
named in an inscription found by Winckler at Boghaz Keui in
* See Keith on The Early History of the Indo-Iranians, Bhandarkar
C.F., 8i.
' Yet Indra and Nasatya (i.e. the Asvins) occur as demons in the
mythology of the Avesta,
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 3
Asia Minor and believed to date from 1400 B.C. ;^ and there
are so many points of resemblance between Ahura Mazdah,
the God of Zoroaster, and the Varuna of the Rigveda that one is
almost driven to believe the two to be identical in origin.^ There
were three forms of sacrifice in use among the early people,
the' shedding of oblations of grain and milk on the sacred fire,
the setting forth of basins of an intoxicating beverage (Sansk.
sotna^ Avestan, haomd) for the gods to drink, and the sacrifice
of animals. Soma had already been deified, and the priests
had begun to sing hymns as an accompaniment to the ritual
with which it was offered. The presence in the Avesta of
a considerable number of ritual terms and designations of
priests, which are exact equivalents of technical words and
phrases found in the Vedas,^ proves that the basis of the
liturgy and the ritual of the Vedic and the Zoroastrian religions
had already taken shape. One most remarkable conception,
the idea of law physical and moral as a fixed divine order, was
formed at a very early date. It is already found in Persian
proper names at a very early date, possibly 1600 B.C., in the
form arta, and it appears in the Rigveda as rita, and in the
Avesta in the form asha.
The time when the people fell into two parts is unknown.
Some scholars would give it an extremely early date, while
others assign it to the middle of the second millenium B.C.
§ 3. Hindus wrote no formal history at any period ; for the
early centuries there are no archaeological remains that throw
any light on the course of events ; nor is any definite informa-
tion provided by nations outside India ; so that the religious
and epic literature forms the only sources of information
available. Yet, though it is impossible to write the history, it
is possible to learn much about the religion of that early time
from these ancient books.
* It mentions Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya (i. e. the A^vins) as gods.
Thus the high antiquity of Varuna is assured.
» Moulton, EZ, 61 ; Bloomfiel'd, RV, 132 if.
' Hillebrandt, RL, 11 ; Haug, AB, I. 61.
B %
r -^
4 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
In this chapter we deal with the development of the religion
from the moment when the tribes entered India down to
the time when the doctrine of transmigration and karma
arose, and we divide the whole period into three sections,
in order to exhibit more clearly the growth of ideas and insti-
tutions.
i. Rik, I-IX.
§ 4. The Rigveda, the earliest literature of India, is a large
collection of hymns connected in various ways with the sacri-
fices, the domestic ceremonies, and the religious speculation
of the time. These hymns were composed by the invading
Aryan tribes, at last severed from their brothers who were
destined to produce Zoroaster and make Persia famous.
When the earliest hymns were composed, they were settled in
the territories forming the basin of the upper Indus and its
tributaries ; but thereafter they gradually spread farther east.
But the invading Aryans, tall in stature and of fair com-
plexion, did not form the main population. Scattered about
among them and around them and over the plains of North
India were innumerable tribes of short, dark people with whom
they were frequently at war, and whom they called Dasyus
and Dasas. The hymns of the Rigveda give no indication
that the Aryan tribes thought of themselves as being strangers
in India or as being in any way related with another people
away to the west. They seem to regard themselves as belong-
ing to the soil on which they live. On the other hand, they
are certainly very conscious of the diflferences between them-
selves and the Dasas, and they regard their hostility towards
them as not only natural but inevitable. These two races
represent the chief elements in the ethnology of India to this
day, and from them and the mutual influence they have
exercised on each other have come, in the main, the civiliza-
tion and the religion of India. In the study of the evolution
of the religion of India we shall constantly be tempted to give
our undivided attention to the Aryan race and community ;
A
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 5
but to neglect the large part played throughout the history by
the aborigines is to fail to grasp facts of great significance. _
§ 5. In the following sentences we combine the few fragments j
of information given in the hymns about the dark tribes.
They are said to have a black skin, and the difference in
colour (varna) between them and the fair Aryans is frequently
referred to. They are called ands^ which probably means
* noseless*, i.e. snub-nosed. They were arranged in clans;
they had considerable wealth ; and they built forts for them-
selves, frequently on hills ; but there is no reason to think
that in civilization they were at all comparable with the
Aryans. The differences between them and the Aryans on
which the hymns lay most stress are religious. The following
epithets are applied to them : ' not sacrificing ', * devoid of
rites ', ' addicted to strange vows *, * god-hating ', * without
devotion ' ; and they are probably the people referred to as
sisna-devdh^ * those whose god is a phallus'. As many of
these people were captured by the Aryans in war and reduced
to slavery, the word ddsa came to bear the meaning of * slave '. .
§ 6. The picture which the hymns enable us to form of the
Aryans shows us an early but not a primitive people ; for they
had made considerable progress in material civilization. Yet
they were still a simple race ; for they had neither coinage
nor writing, and had little idea of number or measure.
Their trade existed only as barter, the cow being the unit
of exchange. They lived in wooden houses and built small
forts on hills, to which they retired when hard pressed
in war.
There was no caste among the Aryan tribes at this time.
We certainly find a triple division of the people — warriors,
priests, and commons ; but there was no hard-and-fast law
prohibiting intermarriage and commanding each son to follow
his father's occupation. Yet the aristocratic warriors and
priests stood out very distinctly from the common people, and
it is only of the aristocracy that we have anything like adequate
information. Though in race, religion, and language the Aryan
6 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
tribes were one, they had not reached the idea of forming
themselves into a nation ; nor had they a sovereign or a war-
leader. Each tribe was independent and had its chief, who
presided over his people in peace and led them in war. War
led occasionally to a coalition of tribes.
Their literature shows that this people had a striking genius
for language. Alone among all the languages of Indo-European
speech their tongue, with the cultured literary language known
as Sanskrit which grew out of it, retains eachielement in easily
recognizable form. It has thus proved of very signal service
to the science of philology.
§7. The Rigveda, which is not only the first monument of
the Indian genius but the earliest literature produced within
the Indo-European family of peoples, is a collection of 1,017
hymns (with eleven extra uncanonical pieces) distributed, in
ten books. Perhaps we shall find our way into the signifi-
cance of the collection most readily if we attempt to sketch
the way in which it seems to have come into existence.
We have seen above that, already in the Indo-Iranian
period, the exhilarating drink made from the soma-plant
had been deified, that a special ritual in which this divine
drink was offered to the gods was in use, and that the singing
of a hymn was an integral part of the ritual. This is the
historical tap-root of the Rigveda, The invaders of India
carried these customs with them, and continued the com-
position of hymns for the Soma-ritual in their new country.
Since the hymn was sung, the priest who sang the hymn was
called the Singer, Udgdiri, But poetry and the hymn would
not be restricted to a single use. Hence a custom arose,
probably after the Aryans had entered India, that the leading
priest, the Sacrificer, Hotri^ who was responsible for offerings
made in the fire and for animal-sacrifice, should recite, in
honour of the god he was worshipping, a poem or hymn of
praise. Rich. Then, as the ritual increased in detail, an
assistant was appointed to undertake the manual acts of
sacrificing {adkvara). He was therefore called Adhvaryu,
.i
THE EARLY VEDIC . RELIGION 7
and the recitation of praises became the Hotri's chief duty.^
Although the ritual was now divided into three strands, there
were no distinct orders of priests corresponding to these
divisions. Each officiant was merely called Hotri^ Udgdtri^
or Adhvaryu^ for the time being, according to the duty he
undertook at the' sacrifice.^
§ 8. Men believed that the sacrifices were mighty to influence
the gods and bring down gifts from them. Therefore every
chieftain and noble among the Aryans was eager to secure
the help of a skilled priest, and was glad to pay him hand-
somely for services which brought victory and wealth from
the gods. Hence we find existing among the people a
number of priestly families of high standing and influence.
The priest taught his sons the precious secret lore which
enabled him. by conducting sacrifices in the right way to win
the favour of the gods for his patrons. It was in these priestly
families that the composition of hymns to the gods was
practised. Each priest did his utmost to produce as beautiful
a hymn as possible, in order to please and move the divinity
for whom the sacrifice was held. Then the priest taught his
sons the best hymns he had composed ; so that in each
family there arose a body of hymns which were greatly
treasured, and were orally transmitted from father to son,
along with the directions for the work of the altar.
Naturally, the priestly families competed for the patronage
of the greatest chieftains and the wealthiest nobles, and in the
struggle found the quality of their hymns a matter of vital
importance. We must therefore picture to ourselves a time
of eager poetic emulation, during which metres, stanzas, and
refrains were gradually perfected and polished. A very
dignified and expressive literary dialect was thus gradually
evolved. This dialect is closely related, it is true, to the
common vernacular, yet it employs stately words and phrases
* Haug, AB, I. 17.
' Muir, OST. V. 350, with a reference to a passage in Yaska ; Hiile*
brandt, RL. 13.
8 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
which would rise to the lips only in moments of exaltation,
and here and there uses well-known and eflfective archaisms.
Thus there arose the first literary dialect of India. As time
went on, the influence of the priests tended to increase. The
ritual became steadily more complex, and the need of skilled
sacerdotal help more pressing. Naturally, hymns were
written for the various festivals, anniversaries, and sacrifices. '
The literature thus tended to become more artificial. The
hymn prepared for a special sacrifice, and written so as to
fit into its chief incidents or features, would be more appro-
priate, but probably less inspired than a hymn arising from
a spontaneous outburst of religious feeling.
How the father taught his sons the family heritage of
technical lore and hymns we do not know. Each experienced
priest probably conducted a sort of rudimentary school for
the benefit of his sons and nephews, in which he taught them
orally all the hymns and priestly lore traditional in the
family.^
§ 9. The RigDeda ^ preserves seven groups of hymns which
belonged to as many families. Each of these bears the name
of a patriarch,^ and to him in each case most of the hymns in
the family collection are ascribed. As authors of hymns these
patriarchs are called RisAis, seers. The names of the eponym
Rishis of the seven families are : Gritsamada, Vi^vamitra,
Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasishtha, Kanva. There were
other families which possessed hymns, but, clearly, these
seven were the most famous of all. It seems certain that
these family collections grew up gradually and that many
singers contributed to each collection ; for each family was
as it were a distinct school of poetry.
But a moment came when, by some means or other, the
hymn-collections belonging to the six families named first
* See /?K. VII. 103.
^ For the growth of the ^ik see Macdonell, 40 ff.
' That is, is spoken of as the Atri book, the Vasishtha book, &c., because
the nanje in each case occurs in many of the hymns of the book as the
name of the seer or of the family of which he is the spokesman.
• J
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 9
above were all taught together in a single school. Each
collection was still kept distinct; but the collections were
taught in order, the one after the other, to the same pupils,
instead of being each retained and handed down in a single
family. There was thus formed the body of poetry now con-
tained in Books II-VII of the Rigveda, How this unification
was eflfected we do not know. The emergence of a very
powerful chieftain, determined at all costs to have the whole
of the best poetry at the command of his own chief priest,
would account for it ; and as the Brahmanic culture first took
definite shape in the holy land of Kurukshetra, the land of
the Kurus, the modern Sirhind, one is tempted to think that
it was some vigorous Kuru prince who commanded that the
hymns of the six families should all be taught together ; but
there is no distinct evidence.
When brought together in the school, the six collections
seem to have been taught in ascending order, each succeeding
collection -containing more hymns than its predecessor: but
later interpolations, by increasing the number of the hymns
irregularly, have somewhat disturbed the arrangement. The
hymns in each of the six collections are in the main arranged
a<:cording to a common method. They are distributed in
groups according to the gods they are addressed to, and
within each of these groups they are arranged in descending
order according to the number of stanzas each contains.
§ 10. Later, a large number of hymns disposed in nine
groups was introduced into the school. Each group was
believed to be the work of one poet ^ or family, all the nine
being quite distinct from the six already mentioned. These
hymns were given the first place in the whole body of
literature belonging to the school, being taught before the
six original collections. They now form the latter half of
Book I of the Rigveda^ beginning with the fifty-first hymn.
The whole collection now amounted to lb + II-VII.
* The names are Savya, Nodhas, Parasara, Gotama, Kutsa, Kakshlvan,
Paruchchhepa, Dirghatamas, Agastya.
lo THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
Still later two further additions were made to the hymn
material of the school. As these two collections each contain
a large number of hymns from the last of the seven famous
families mentioned above,^ the family of Kanva, and have
also a number of common features, it is likely that they had
a common origin, and were introduced to the great school at
the same time. One group was prefixed to the old material,
the other affixed. So that the body of sacred poetry now
stood thus : la + lb + II-VII + VIIL
Then the ninth book came into existence. It consists
exclusively of Soma hymns dedicated to Soma Pavamana,
* clearly-flowing Soma '. Hymns which belonged to each of
the seven great families represented in Books II-VII I are
gathered together here. This collection is thus a sort of
preliminary Sdmaveda, Though collected later than the
hymns of Books I-VIII, the hymns of Book IX are perhaps
as early as any in the whole collection.
It is probable that by this time the whole body of hymns
of praise (richas), regarded by the priests as precious know-
ledge {veda)^ was called Rigveda,
'We now attempt to understand in outline the religion
reflected Jn Books I-IX of the Rik, ^
§ II. The following are the names of most of the noticeable
gods of the Aryans, disposed as the people were accustomed
to arrange them, in three categories, according as their function
was exercised upon earth, in the region of the air, or in the
heaven of light :
Lower gods \ Agni, Soma.
Middle gods \ Indra, Maruts, Rudra, Parjanya, Vayu, the
Ribhus.
Upper gods: Vishnu, Surya, Savitri, Pushan, the Ai^vins,
Ushas, Aditi and her three sons, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman.
But these three lists are not exhaustive. Several other divinities
are named ; waters, rivers, and mountains are recognized as
divine; and tools and implements, especially the sacrificial
Ȥ9.
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION ii
implements, receive adoration and are expected to hear and
answer prayer.
^ndra\is the most prominent god in the Rigveda ; for more
than one-fourtji of the hymns are dedicated to him. He is
primarily the regent of the sky. Young and strong, brilliant
as the sun, ruddy and golden, he comes riding in his far-
shining car to the sacrifice, eats the flesh of bulls and bufifaldes,
drinks vast quantities of soma, and listens to the hymns
recited and chanted in his honour. These stimulate his vital
energies and rouse him to his utmost courage. He then assails
with thunderbolt and lightning-flash the malevolent demons
who keep the rain locked up and swiftly defeats them. The
cloud-castles are stormed, and the waters, set free, rush down
in fierce torrents on the earth. Naturally this heavenly
warrior became the national god of the Aryan invaders^. He
is praised as the monarch of heaven and earth, the controller
of the destinies of men, and the friend and helper of those
who offer him sacrifice.
Agni and Soma, who conie next after Indra in prominence
in the Rigveda, are also nature-divinities, the one Fire, the
other the intoxicating drink made from the soma-plant ; but
they both owe their great position to their connexion with
the ritual. The two chief forms of sacrificing were the
offering of milk, butter, grain, and flesh in the altar-fire, and
the setting out of great bowls of soma on the sacred grass for
the gods to drink. Since through the fire the off*erings are
presented to 'the gods, Agni is the great priest of the gods.
Soma lives in the .divine plant of that name which is the drink
of the gods in heaven, and which, transplanted to earth,
exhilarates man and delights all the gods at the sacrifices.
Both gods are spoken of as doing the work of creator and
upholder of the universe. The hymns of the ninth book were
sung at the sacrifices in honour of Soma.
Varuna is the noblest figure in the Rigveda, He is con-
nected with the day-sky, the night-sky, and the waters. But
he has lofty cosmical functions as well. He upholds heaven
la THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
and earth, and he is the supporter of all beings. He wields
all the powers of rita^ i.e. divine law, both physical and
moral ; therefore his ordinances are fixed and can never be
shaken. All natural things are subject to them, and he
watches to see whether men obey his lofty laws. He rewards
the righteous, punishes the wrongdoer (frequently with
dropsy), and releases the sinner from his sin when he comes
with prayer and oblation. He is the wise guardian of
immortality.
But the most significant trait in his character is this, that he
is always righteous. We have already seen that Varuna is the
Vedic counterpart of Ahura Mazdah of the religion of Zoro-
aster. He must have been a god of distinctly ethical character
in the period before the Indo-Iranian people fell apart, and in
his prominence in the Rigveda and in the lofty attributes
which he wears we must see evidence of an Indian development
parallel to Zoroaster's selection of Mazdah to be the one god
of his high ethical monotheism. It begins to look as if the
two movements may have been roughly contemporaneous ; for
scholars are more and more inclined to assign to Zoroaster
a date about loco B.C. rather than the traditional date of
600 B.c.^ -But Varuna failed to reach supremacy ; the warrior
Indra became the leading divinity of the Rigveda ; and India
failed to develop an ethical theism.
The religion of the Rigveda is probably the most interest-
ing polytheism reflected in any literature. It certainly has
not the grace and charm of the pantheon of 'the Homeric
poems; but it stands nearer the origin of the gods, and
enables us to see them at the most significant stage of their
evolution. All the great, and nearly all the minor gods, are
deified natural phenomena, and the interest of the presentation
springs from the fact that they are still identified with those
glorious things and yet are distinguished from them. They
are still thought of as being actually dawn, sun, moon, sky,
rain, wind, thunder, fire: men actually offer sacrifice to the
* Moulton, TM, 6, 13 ; Oldenberg, LU, 4.
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 13
reddening dawn, to the sun as he mounts the heavens, and to
the crackling fire on the hearth ; yet each god is conceived as
a glorious living being who has his home in heaven, and who
comes sailing in his far-shining car to the sacrifice and sits
down on the sacred grass to hear his own praises recited and
sung and to receive the offerings. Further, each divinity is
held to have influence on things far beyond that phase of the
physical world which is his source. He is believed to be able
* to give his worshippers blessings of many kinds, victory,
prosperity, cattle, wealth, children. The greatest gods are
connected with the creation and upholding of the world, and
Varuna holds in his hands all divine law, both physical and
moral. This ambiguous position then — each glittering god
still struggling to release his gorgeous wings from the clinging
chrysalis of his natural source — gives them their peculiar
charm and interest, and shows us mythology in the making ;
but it also prevents the development of distinct personality in
the gods and makes them natural rather than moral beings.
Though there is much superstition in the Rigveda^ and even
the great gods, with the exception of Varuna, are not beings
of holy character, yet the black arts are held in check, and
human sacrifices, cruel rites, eroticism, and other horrors are
noticeably absent. The religion is, on the whole, a healthy,
happy system. Neither asceticism nor austerity, neither
pessimism nor philosophy, disturbs the sunshine of that early
day.
§ 12&. The worship reflected in the hymns circles round the
great sacrifices!, which are to be carefully distinguished from
the simple oblations which each householder offered in the
household fire daily. The great sacrifices were not public
acts of worship attended by all the people, like the sacrifices
of Israel, of Greece, or of Rome.
A chieftain, a noble, or any other wealthy man simply
employed the necessary priests and had the rites carried out
for himself. A sacrifice held by a chieftain would have a sort
of public significance, if it was intended to secure prosperity
14 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
for his rule or victory in war ; yet, even in that case, it was
a personal act, and benefited, in the first instance, the sacrificer
and his family alone.
The sacrifices were held in the open air or in a shed erected
for the purpose near the house of the sacrificer. No temples
or sacred places existed in those days. The word vedi^ i. e.
altar, seems to denote in the Rigveda the area on which the
rite was carried out. It was strewn with sacred grass, that
the gods might come and sit down on it. Upon the vedi the
oblations were laid out ; and there also were the sacred fires
prepared. The chief oblations were milk, melted butter, grain,
and cakes. The Adhvaryu shed them on the fire and muttered
his formulae the while. At certain points in the ceremonies
the Hotri recited hymns.
In the Soma-sacrifice the priests brought the twigs of the
soma plant, expressed the juice with the press-stones, purified
it, mixed it with milk, and then poured it into basins and set
it out on the altar for the gods to drink. The soma-hymns
were sung by the Udgatri while the Adhvaryu was busy with
these ritual acts. The sacrificer, being by the rites admitted
to the company of the gods, then drank of the divine beverage,
and was thereby made a new man.^ The priest also drank of
the soma.
Animal sacrifice — the goat, the ox, the cow, the ram, or the
horse — accompanied both the fire-oblations and the soma-rites.
The animals were killed and cut up according, to rule, and
pieces were laid out on the altar, while certain parts were
burned in the fire. The horse-sacrifice had already a highly
developed ritual, several hymns specially composed for it being
found in the Rik^ The flesh was divided between the sacrificer
and the priests.
Without the help of skilled priests, these great sacrifices
were quite impossible. Hence an advanced sacerdotal train-
ing already existed, and is alluded to in the hymns. By the
time the nine books of the Rik were gathered, the priests
1 Haug, AB. I. 60. ' I. 162, 163 ; IV. 38, 39, 40.
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 15
formed a distinct profession, though they had not yet developed
into a caste.
§ 13. The boons which the worshippers ask for are in most
cases material blessings, prosperity, wealth, cattle, rich crops,
chariots, wives, children, health, long life, protection from
danger, victory in war, and rich spoil. Yet not infrequently
immortality is prayed for. There are also numerous prayers
for release from sin and its consequences. Usually sacrifice,
a hymn, or faithful worship, is made the ground forjthe gift
of pardon and health, but once or twice something approach-
ing real penitence appears. Yet the overwhelming impression
made by the Rigveda is that the spirit of religion is worldly
and indeed tends to be mercenary.
§ 14. There are many passages in which the highest cosmical
and divine functions are attributed to Indra, or Agni, or Soma,
or some other god. How was it possible to attribute these
lofty powers now to one god, now to another? To describe
this pose of mind Max Muller coined the word Henotheism,
the elevation to supremacy of one god at a time. While the
poet invokes the god, he is to him the only possible Supreme,
and he does not stint his praises by any thought of another ;
yet the following day he may ascribe the same lofty powers to
a second divinity. To this may be added the thought that,
monotheism being the only fully rational faith, the human
mind, in proportion to its purity, reverence, and openness, is
unconsciously drawn towards it. But we must also recognize
that the gods of the Rigveda do not stand out in clear indivi-
duality and distinctness the one from the other. They are
personifications of nature, lack character, and tend to melt
into one another.
ii. Rik^ X ; Saman ; Early Yajus,
§ 15. There followed a considerable interval of time during
which these nine books were used as the hymn-book of the
tribes. The life of the people was expanding, and they were
extending their hold on the country. They had now reached
i6 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
the upper waters of the Jumna ; and the fertile band of
country between the Jumna and the Ganges was being
occupied farther and farther south. Many of the better
aboriginal tribes had been brought into friendly relations with
the Aryans, and were settling down beside them to serve as
labourers or as household servants. These accepted aborigines
were called Sudras. The position of the priests was steadily
becoming more prominent and assured. In consequence,
social distinctions were becoming deeper and more marked.
The priests were more and more unwilling to intermarry with
the other classes; and the Aryan community as a whole
wished to avoid mixture with aboriginals, both those accepted
as Sudras and those excluded as Outcastes.
The power of the priests over the gods was more and more
recognized, their services more highly appreciated. Hence
they were now frequently asked to assist in marriage and
funeral ceremonies, which in earlier days were conducted
entirely by the house-father himself, and to perform certain
magic rites for individuals, both men and women. Religious
unrest was producing philosophical speculation and also
a tendency to the practice of austerities. Naturally this
varied and growing activity led to the composition of new
hymns. Many of them were meant for the old sacrifices,
others for use at weddings, funerals, and the feast in com-
memoration of the fathers ; some dealt with those religious
and philosophical questions which were beginning to trouble
the advancing community ; and others were composed for use
as incantations iti sorcery and magic.
§ 1 6. Finally, some scholar gathered together a very varied
collection of 191 pieces, and it was introduced into the
schools and taught as the last section of the oral curriculum of
hymns. There were now ten groups of hymns, the ten books
of the Ri^veda. As the first book also contains 191 hymns,
the whole became a noble series of ten collections, the first
and the last balancing each other in the number of their
hymns. There can be no doubt that the hymns of the tenth
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 17
book belong to several different periods. Some of them are
quite old ; most are clearly subsequent to the hymns of the
first nine books ; and a few are very late indeed. The
ninetieth hynin, usually called the Hymn of Creation, contains
a number of developed philosophical concepts, refers to the
Caste system, and mentions the names of at least three of the
Vedas. Thus we must recognize that, when the collection
was completed, the Sdmaveda and the Yajurveda were already
in existence, at least in some primitive form, and that the
Caste system was at least taking shape.
§ 17. The interpretation of the Rigveda is not yet scientifi-
cally certain in all respects. No ancient commentary on the
whole work has come down to us, though there are manuals
dealing with certain groups of phenomena, which date from
500 B. C. or earlier. The earliest commentary preserved on the
text as a whole was written in the fourteenth century, by the
great scholar Sayana. Thus there need be no surprise if
there are many pasysages in the hymns which are still incom-
prehensible.
The age of the Rigveda is still very uncertain. Max
Miiller in his Ancient Sanskrit Literature^ published in 1859,
suggested i2co to 1000 B.C. as the lowest limits that could be
postulated for the composition of the Vedic hymns, and 1000
to 800 B.C. for the formation of the collections. Others are
inclined to believe that longer time is required for the develop-
ment ; while a few are convinced that the hymns imply the
lapse of thousands of years. Scholars seem to incline towards
Miiller's dates rather than to these extreme figures.^
§ 18. With the increasing elaboration of the sacrifices, and
the consequent emergence of many new duties for the priests,
division of labour became unavoidable. It proved more and
more necessary that a man should restrict himself to the
functions of a Hotriy an Udgdtriy or an Adhvaryu^ instead of
* Miiller, ASL. 572; Macdonell, 11-12; Winternitz, I. 246 ff.;
Thibaut, Hindustan Review^ Jan. 1904; Jacobi, JRAS, 1909, 721;
Oldenberg,/^-^^. 1909, 1095 ; Keith, TS, I. clxvi; JRAS. 1909, 11 00.
C
i8 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
attempting to become proficient in all three. Hence the need
for a distinct education for each type of priest made itself felt.
Perhaps in the formation of the ninth book of the Riky which
consists exclusively of Soma-hymns, we may trace the
beginnings of the movement. But a time came when some-
thing more was required.
In the case of the man who sang the strophes at the Soma-
sacrifice, the Udgatri, two forms of training were required.
He had to learn to sing, readily and accurately, all the tunes
that were used in the many distinct Soma-sacrifices, and he had
also to know which strophes were required for each sacrifice
and in what order they were sung. Therefore, that the young
priest might master all the tunes thoroughly and have any one
at command at any moment, each was connected with a single
stanza of the right metre, and the teacher made his pupils
sing it over and over again, until tune and stanza were firmly
imprinted, in indissoluble association, in the memory. In the
Kauthuma school at least, the Udgatri student was taught 585
tunes, married to as many single verses. The whole collection
of stanzas was called the Archika^ i. e. the book of praises.
For mnemonic reasons, the stanzas are arranged in several
large groups according to the deities to whom they are
dedicated, and the groups are subdivided into sets of ten.
Then the strophes used in the ritual of the Soma-sacrifice were
, arranged in the order in which they were sung, and were
taught to Udgatfi students in this form instead of the Rigveda,
The practical value of this step will be at once apparent. The
young priest, in committing the strophes to memory, learnt
also at which sacrifices and at what point in each sacrifice
they were used. There are 400 strophes in the collection, the
great majority consisting of three stanzas each, the whole
comprising 1,225 stanzas. This collection was called the
Uttardrchikay or second praise-book. All the stanzas contained
in the two Archikas, with the exception of seventy-five, are
taken from the Rigveda ; so that, from the point of view of the
hymns, these books are of little interest in comparison with
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 19
the Rik. These two, the musical collection and the sacrificial
liturgy, were taught in special schools; and, since the knowledge,
vedUy which they taught was the songs or chants, sdmdni,
required for the sacrifice, it was called the Sdmaveda^ and the
schools were called schools of the Sdmaveda. In those early
days the music, as well as the stanzas, was taught orally ; but,
at a considerably later date, when writing began to be used
in the schools for various purposes, tune-books, called gdnas^
were prepared. In these the tunes were indicated by a system
of musical notes, and the words of the hymns were set down
precisely as they were sung, with many vowels prolonged,
many syllables repeated, and other extra-textual syllables
interpolated at various places. These interpolated syllables,
called stobhaSy praises — e. g. hun^ hin^ hai^ hati, hoyi, huva^ hoi^
&c. — are the exact counterpart of the jubila interpolated in
Plain-song in the ninth and tenth centuries.^ There were two
ganas connected with the Archika^ one Grdmageyagdna^ for
use in the village, the other Aranyagdna^ for use in the case
of those texts which, for one reason or another, were held so
sacred as to be sung only in the seclusion of the forest.
§ 19. From the earliest days it had been customary for the
sacrificer, the Hotri, to accompany each ritual-act of the
sacrifice with some short phrase, either to indicate its signi-
ficance, its purpose, or the god for whom it was meant, or to
invoke some blessing with it, or to prevent the act from having
a dangerous result. The priest muttered these phrases, taking
care that he should not be overheard. They were of the
nature of incantations and dedications rather than prayer and
praise. When the recitation of hymns of praise became the
chief duty of the Hotri priest, and the working-priest, the
Adhvar)ai, was appointed to do the manual acts, the latter
naturally took over also the duty of muttering these ritual
formulae : the name is yajtis^ plural yajumshi. Rather later
still, it became customary for the Adhvaryu to utter, at
certain points in the ritual, in addition to the old formulae,
* Fox Strangways, Music of Hindustan^ 255.
C 7,
ao THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
praises and prayers consisting of stanzas taken from hymns of
the Rigveda or from other sources.
Probably about the time when the schools of the Sdtnaveda
came into existence, or rather later, the training of the Adh-
varyu took a fixed traditional form in special schools conducted
for the purpose. The essential part of the tradition was the
body of ritual formulae in prose and the prayers in verse
which accompanied the ritual acts; but detailed instruction,
in one form or another, must have been also given about the
ritual acts themselves. The mass of material having for its
nucleus the formulae, j^«wj^/, which accompanied the ritual,
gave the Adhvaryu the knowledge, veda^ necessary for his
work, and was therefore called Yajurveda.
§ 20. The formation of these special schools for Udgatris and
Adhvaryus necessarily led to the old schools of the Rigveda
becoming special training-schools for the Hotri priests. We
must also conclude that* from the time of the rise of these
new schools, there were three distinct orders of priests ; but
there was no rule precluding a priest from exercising the
functions of two, or even of all the three orders, provided he
had acquired the necessary training. The mass of men,
however, would be content with the curriculum of a single
school. By this time the priests had become a closed caste
and called themselves Brahmans. Each Brahman priest
received his education in one of the three types of schools
ai.d was known thereafter as a member of the school.
§ %\, In our first survey we dealt with the first nine books
6l the Rik ; so that the fresh literature which we now examine
is the tenth book of the Rik^ the Sdman and the original
Yajurveda. For practical purposes we may take Books I-
XVni of the White Yajtts as representing, with fair accuracy,
the extent of the original work. Since nearly the whole text
of the Samaveda is taken unchanged from the Rik^ it is not
of so much importance as the other two sources. The most
prominent features of the new situation are these : the com-
munity is now sharply divided into four groups by caste
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION ai
distinctions — Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vai^yas, Sudfas ; and
there are three orders of priests, each possessing a Veda
taught in schools belonging to the order. The religion
reflected in the literature is wider and more varied than it
appeared in the glimpse we had in the Rik^ I-IX. The
prose formulae muttered by the Adhvaryu in accompaniment
to the ritual acts are clearly a very old constituent of the
cult, older indeed than the hymns ; but the actual formulae
contained in the Yajurveda are probably of very varied age :
some may be very old, others quite new ; so that we must be
cautious about attributing the whole to very early times. But,
although the individual phrases are of indeterminate age, the
fundamental thought involved in them, especially the magic
character of the whole system, is clearly old. With this agrees
the magic power attributed to the tunes sung by the Udgatri
priests, and to the metres of the hymns. Hence the presence
in the tenth book of the Rigveda of a considerable number
of incantatioDs for use in private magic rites probably does
not indicate any new access of faith in these operations, but
merely an increased willingness on the part of priests trained
in the schools to officiate in these ceremonies. The priests
are more prominent than ever ; for they are now an organized
body, the chief of the four castes, and are believed to wield
almost limitless supernatural power. The pantheon has not
changed materially in the interval ; but priestly authority and
magical conceptions seem to be gradually weakening the
position of the gods, and there is evidence of the existence of
considerable religious unrest and scepticism and of various
efforts made to cope with it.
The gods and their attributes appear in our source in all
essentials the same as they do in the first nine books of the
Rigveda \ yet certain changes are visible. A few new gods
make their appearance; some divinities, notably Ushas^ Vamna^
and ParjanyUy receive less attention than formerly, while
others h^ve risen to new prominence. Of these the most
noteworthy are Vishnu and Rudra^ who have already begun
I
2a THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
that mysterious upward movement, which gradually raised
them above all their Vedic compeers, and made them the
two supreme divinities of modem Hinduism. So far as our
evidence goes, it would seem as if Vishnu owed his first
elevation to his being identified with the sacrifice by the
Adhvaryu priests. In that sense his name occurs in hundreds
of passages in the Yajurveda. One of the more prominent
elements of the same work is the Satarudrtya, a famous hymn
of praise to Rudra, which is decisive evidence of his growing
importance.
§ aa. The existence of the three Vedas enables us to get
a more vivid idea of the sacrifices which formed almost the
whole cult of the gods. The great sacrifices were either
obhgatory or voluntary. Of the obligatory rites the most
noteworthy were the New Moon and the Full Moon sacrifices
and the sacrifice to Ancestors observed every month, and
a few similar observances which occurred less often. Of the
voluntary ceremonies the most elaborate and expensive were
the Soma-sacrifices. The Aivamedha or Horse-sacrifice was
meant to secure all blessings for a prince, including even
imperial sway. Another type of ceremony, which any wealthy
man might undertake, was the Agnichayana, or the building of
a fire altar of great elaboration of design.
§ 23. There are a number of hymns in the tenth book of the
Rik^ which seem to have been taught in the schools with
a view to being used in the contests of wit which closed the
sacrifices. There are two collections of riddles, and about
a dozen dialogues ; but the largest and most interesting group
are speculative pieces springing from the new religious
situation. One is a hymn in praise of faith, one describes
the ascetic, and another deals with tapas or self-mortification,
while the remainder, eleven in number, form the fountain-
head of Indian philosophy. In our first survey we learned
that priests trained in the schools had begun to practise
private magic and to use certain hymns contained in the
Rigveda as spells. By the time the tenth book was compiled
j-\
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 23
things had gone farther : a large number of incantations are
included in it.
There is no hint of the doctrine of transmigration in our
sources. Men live and die once. They pray that they may
live a hundred autumns. When good men die, Yania guides
them to his heavenly home and there they live in immortality
and joy. They are then called the Fathers.
iii. BrdhfnanaSy Atharvan^ Aranyakas.
§ 24. We have already seen that a number of spells for use
in magic are contained in the Rik. The character of these
poems proves that the old-world incantations which the Aryans,
in common with other Indo-European peoples, had been accus-
tomed to use had, in the main at least, given way before
a new type of spell, written in polished language and metre,
on the model of the hymns to the gods. Doubtless, hundreds
of these were being used by sorcerers, exorcists, and magicians,
although only a few found their way into the hymn-book of
the priests ; and the process of composition continued after
the canon of the Rigveda was closed. The incantation -
priest had no lack of wealthy clients ready to pay well for his
magic arts and poetical charms instinct with supernatural
power. Hence numerous hymns from the Rigveda were
turned to these purposes ; philosophic poems were perverted
to more mysterious uses, their sounding phrases and incom-
prehensible concepts rendering them most formidable to the
ear; and many new incantations were composed to fit into
the detailed ritual of magic, both black and white. The man
of muttered charms was usually summoned also to do the
priestly duties in the domestic ceremonies, which were observed
at the time of birth, marriage, death, and such like.
§ %^. Then, during the period of the Brahmanas^ a school
was formed for the training of this class of priests, and quite
naturally a great collection of these incantations was made
the text-book of the school. This text-book is the Atharva-
veda. It has come down to us in two recensions, named
24 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
Saunaklya and Paippalada. The former is the text in
ordinary use, and it alone has been edited, translated, and
examined in detail. A single birch-bark manuscript of the
Paippalada was found in Kashmir in 1874, and a facsimile
reproduction has been published. There is a good deal of
difference between the two recensions in the way in which
the hymns are arranged ; and about one-eighth or one-ninth
of the contents of the Paippalada MS. is fresh material, found
neither in the Saunaklya recension nor in any other Vedic
collection. Since so little investigation has been carried out
on the new text, we shall confine our attention to the Sauna-
klya or Vulgate.
It is probable that the Atharvaveda was built up to its
present proportions in various stages, but we do not know
the history. Each of the two recensions consists of twenty
books, but the order by no means corresponds. In the
Vulgate it is clear that Books XIX and XX are late additions.
Books I to XVIII fall into three divisions. The first covers
Books I to VII, and consists in the main of short hymns,
arranged in accordance with the number of stanzas they
contain, and without reference to their subject-matter. The
second contains Books VIII to XII and consists of long
hymns on miscellaneous subjects. In the third division,
Books XIII to XVIII, each book consists of hymns which
are marked by essential unity of subject. Various attempts
have been made -to decide how these three groups were
brought together, but no unanimity has yet been reached.
Scholars point out that a number of the shorter spells of
the Atharvaveda agree in purpose and method, and to some
extent also in form, with charms found in the folk-lore of
other nations of the Indo-European race ; so that the roots
of the practices of this Veda go very far back indeed. About
i,aco of the 6,000 stanzas contained in the work are taken
from the Rigveda. But the bulk of the fresh material is of
later origin.^ Part of it is in prose, the rest in verse. The
^ So Oldenberg, RV, 15: Keith agrees.
J
- 1
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 25
compilation of the eighteen books took place long after the
completion of the Rigveda^ during the period of the
Brahmanas.
For a long time the Atharvan collection held a very
humble position as compared with the three sacrificial Vedas.
It was not accepted as a Veda at all. The trayividya, triple
knowledge, was all that men recc^nized. To this day in
certain parts of South India it is almost unknown.
§ 26. The priestly schools soon became great and learned
associations each with a splendid reputation. The student
had first of all to learn the Veda of his school with perfect
accuracy from the lips of his teacher. He had then, in the
second place, to receive a great deal of instruction as to his
duties at the altar, and numerous explanations of the meaning
of the hymns, the ritual acts, and such like. The instructions
were called vidhi^ the explanations arthavdda. For some
time these lectures were given by the teacher in an unfettered
way in his own language ; but gradually in each school the
material took more definite form, and finally was handed
down in stereotyped language from teacher to pupil, genera-
tion after generation. Naturally, it was in prose. Every
piece of instruction of this type was called a Brahmanas either
as being the utterance of a Brahman^ or as an exposition of
religious truth {brahman). In contrast with these Brahmanas,
the hymns and prose formulae which were recited, sung, or
muttered during the sacrifices were called mantras. The
word mantra means originally religious thought, prayer,
sacred utterance, but from an early date it also implied that
the text was a weapon of supernatural power.
Since these Brahmana lectures were expositions of the
si^rifice, the hymns, and the prayers, the teachers of the
Yajurveda took the very natural course of inserting them at
various points among the material on which they were meant
to throw light. In the schools of the Rik and the Sdman,
however, this course was not followed. The teachers were
probably so impressed with the divine character of the hymn-
26 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
collections that they felt they could not disturb the sacred
•arrangement of the text. In any case in both these schools
the expository lectures were gathered into a separate collection,
which was called Brdhmana.
Then the teachers of the Vajasaneya school of the Yajurveda
were led by this example to a similar course. They separated
out all the Brahmana sections from the sacrificial formulae and
the verses of their Veda, and formed a Veda and a Brahmana
out of them. In this way the schools of the Yajurveda fell
into two groups, and the old mixed collection of mantras and
Brahmanas was called the Black FiyW, while the new unmixed
collection of hymns with its separate Brahmana was called
the White Yajus. As the Brahmana material in each school
was constantly growing, the Veda as handed down in the
various schools of the Black Yajus soon showed considerable
differences. It has come down to us in four distinct forms
called Samhitds, See table below.
At a later date one of these schools of the Black Yajus, the
Taittiriyas, followed the common practice thus far that, on the
formation of a fresh body of Brahmana material, they did not
introduce it into the already mixed Veda, but formed it into
a separate Brahmana. This new book is really a continuation
of the Brahmana material within the Samhita of the school.
The continued branching of the schools, and the constant
addition of fresh Brahmana material to the old, must have led
in the long rUn to the existence of a very large number of
Brahmanas, differing more or less from one another. In the
chances and changes of history, much of this literature has
been lost. Thus, what survives to-day is but a small part of
what once existed. The following table shows the various
Samhitas of the Yajurveda which contain Brahmana material,
and also the ancient Brahmanas :
THE EARLY VgDIC RELIGION
•27
SAMHITAS AND BRAHMANAS
Schools,
A. Rigveda
1. The Aitareyins
2. The Kaushltakins
B. Samaveda
I. The Tandins
2. The Talavakaras
Samhitas containing
Brdhmana material.
Brdhmanas,
C. Yajurveda
I . The Kathakas
2. The Kapishthala-
Ka|has
5. The Maitrayanlyas
4. The Taittinysis
5. The Vajasaneyins
I. Kdthaka
2. Kapishthala-Katha
3. Maitrayani
4. Taittirtya
1. Aitareya ,
2. Kaushitaki or Sank-
hdyana *
1. a, Panchavimsa
b, Shadvimsa
c, Chhandogya
2. Jaiminiya or Tala-
vakdra (including
Upanishad B. and
Arsheya B,)
I. Kdthaka f preserved in
part in the Taittiriya
Aranyaka
4. T^aittirtya
5. Satapatha
§ 27. One's first reading of a Brahmana is an extraordinary
experience. It seems as if the men who composed these
interminable gossiping lectures had left realities far behind
them, and were living in a dreary realm of shadowy gods and
men and topsy-turvy morality and religion, in which nothing
belongs to the world we know except the sacrificial meats and
drinks and the fees paid to the priestly dreamers. Yet in the
midst of this waste of arid ritualism and childish speculation
one finds the beginnings of grammar, of astronomy, of etymo-
logy* and of the philosophy of the Atman. There are also
legends and narratives which are forerunners of the Epic, and
numerous rules of conduct out of which finally arose the
Hindu dharma. The Indian mind was by no means dead,
although sacerdotalism was drunk with supremacy and in its
folly and arrogance was hastening the day of revolt.
§ 28. In addition to the Brahmana portions of the Blcick
a8 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
Yajurveday only the following six Brahmanas are ritual text-
books of importance : Aitareya^ Katishitakiy Panchavimsa^
Talavakdra^ Taittiriya^ Satapatha, The Shadvimia is an
appendix to the Pahchavimsa^ and the Chhdndogya deals only
with domestic rites. It is impossible to set down this mass of
material in strict chronological order, because each Brahmana
is a collection of pieces of different age and origin; yet, if we
omit the Kapishtkala-Katha Samhitd and the Kdthaka jB.,
which have survived only in fragments, the following repre-
sents, on the whole, the order in which these books arose :
I. The Maiirdyanty Kdthaka^ and Taittirlya Samhitas, which
cannot be safely arranged in any chronological order; a/the
Aitareya Brahmana ; 3. the Panchavimsa ; 4. the Taittirlya ;
5. th^ Jaiminlya \ 6. the Kaushitaki\ 7. the Satapatha.
§ 29. To the Brahmanas there are appended chapters,
written in the main in Brahmana language and style, but
differing somewhat in contents. Usually these chapters begin
with material scarcely distinguishable from the Brahmana
itself, but gradually shade off through mystic allegory into
philosophic speculation. Usually the ritualistic and allegorical
parts are called Aranyaka^ and the philosophic, Upanishad\
but sometimes the whole receives the title Upanishad. The
Upanishads will be dealt with in our next chapter ; for in them
first appears the mighty doctrine of transmigration and karma ;
but we consider the Aranyakas here. Parts of these * Forest-
treatises ' (from aranya, forest) describe the ritual and give
incidental mystic explanations, and are thus indistinguishable
from Brahmana teaching, except that here and there we meet
chapters which add stringent rules to the effect that the rites
are to be kept secret and carried out only for certain persons.
Similar secrecy is sometimes enjoined in the Upanishads.
Side by side with these are found chapters which are exclu-
sively given up to allegorical expositions of the ritual, and are
clearly meant not for ritual use but for meditation. Finally
there are passages which teach the student to practise medita-
tion on the allegorical meaning of certain sacrifices instead of
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 29
the actual performance of the ritual. In none of these ritual-
istic or allegorical chapters is the doctrine of transmigration
and karma taught.
§ 30. All scholars agree that the Aranyakas were meant to
be studied in the forest.^ But who were the men who studied
them? During the time when the Brahmanas were coming
into being, an order of hermits who resided in the forests of
India appeared. They gave up all the business of the world
and devoted themselves to a religious life. Their practice in
general had three aspects, tapas, i. e. austerities, sacrifice, and
meditation ; but there was more than one rule, so that practice
varied considerably. In some cases sacrifice was given up
altogether; and the great and elaborate sacrifices must have
been always impossible. These facts about the order are
taken from the Dharmasutras.^ Very vivid pictures of the
life occur in the Rdmdyana^ agreeing perfectly with what has
just been said. When a student had completed his education,
he was allowed either to remain with his teacher for life, or to
marry and settle down as a householder, or to retire to the
woods as a hermit.^ The earliest name used to designate
a hermit seems to have been Vaikhdnasa^ (from Vikhanas,
the traditional author of the rule), but later Vdnaprastha,
forest-dweller, came into use. It was at a much later date
that there came into use the ideal rule for the life of the twice-
bom man, that his life should be lived in four stages, dsramas
as a student, householder, hermit, and monk.^
Now Sayana makes a remark which seems to mean that the
Aranyaka was the Brahmana of the hermit ; "^ and certain
modern scholars, especially Deussen, have accepted that view.
The varied character of the contents of the Aranyakas — ritual,
^ The ancient evidence is conclusive. See Ramanuja, Srtbhdshya,
SBE, XLVIII. 645, and Sayana quoted by Keith in his Aiiareya Ar, 15,
* Gautama, SBE, II._I95 ; Vasishtha, SBE, XIV. 45 ; Baudhayana,
SBE, XIV. 259 ; 291 ; Apastamba, SBE, II. 155.
' See II. Ivi ; III. i ; v ; vi ; vii ; xi ; xii. * Chhdndogya U, II. 23, i.
" Gautama, DS. III. 26. ® Deussen, ERE, H. 128 ff.
'^ Aranyavratarupam brdhmanam: see Deussen, PU. 2n. ; Keith
AA. 15.'
30 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
secret explanation, allegory, and internal instead of external
sacrifice — fits perfectly into the varying practice of the hermits
of the forest ; so that one is tempted at first sight to conclude
that these treatises were actually prepared for the Vana-
prasthas. But Oldenberg^ and Berriedale Keith * believe that
the Aranyakas were held to be texts of such sacredness that
they could with safety be repeated only in the seclusion of the
forest. The Aranyagdna of the Sdmaveda would then be
a parallel case. Professor Keith believes that the Aranyakas
were taught to priests, just as the Brahmanas. were. The
difference lay in the secrecy necessary for the forest treatises.
For our purpose, however, it is unnecessary to decide the
question. We require merely to distinguish those chapters
which separate themselves from the Brahmanas by their stress
on allegory, secrecy, and meditation, and from the philosophic
Upanishads by the absence of the doctrine of transmigration,
whatever their original purpose may have been. The chief
texts are :
iAitareya Aranyaka,
' ^ * (Kaushitaki Aranyaka,
Black Yajus : Taittirlya Aranyaka^ I-VI.
White Yajus : Brihaddranyaka = Satapatha B. XIV,
• • • •
1-111.
§31. The point at which we take our third survey is just
before the appearance of the doctrine of transmigration and
karma in the literature. The literature in existence at that
time and surviving to our day comprises the four Vedas, the
six old Brahmanas, and the Aranyakas. Since we have
already dealt with the Riky the Sdman, and the early Yajus^
the literature which forms the source for this survey is :
1. The later portions of the Yajurveda.
2. The Atharvaveda,
3. The six old Brahmanas.
4. The Aranyakas.
* LU. 148 ff. 2 AA. 15, 25711. 10.
THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION 31
By the time to which our survey refers the Aryans had
spread over North India at least as far as Behar, but the
district between the Jumna and the Ganges was still the
centre of Brahmanical culture. Probably all the books of our
source arose in that region.^ We cannot fix the date of our
survey chronologically ; for the estimates of scholars show
considerable variation. At the time we seek to envisage there
were already many petty princedoms in North India, contain-
ing numerous towns, and wealth and culture were growing.
While the country between the Jumna and the Ganges was
recognized as the central hearth of the religion and education
of the time, there were seats of civilization in the Punjab, in
the far North- West, and as far east as the modern Patna. Not
only the four great castes but many of the modern mixed
castes and sub-castes were already in existence. The Brah-
manical schools had greatly increased in number. Each Veda
had its own multitude of schools, divided into subordinate
groups according to the recension of the Veda they used, and
further subdivided according to the Brahmana they recognized.
At some quite unknown date, but certainly before the end of
the period, the work of the Vedic schools had become widened,
so as not only to provide ^ specialized training for priests but
also to give a religious education to all boys of the Brahman,
Kshatriya, and Vaisya castes. Every boy belonging to these
castes went to school immediately after undergoing the
ceremony of initiation. Since this ceremony thus became the
entrance to a spiritual training, it was called the boy's second
birth. Hence these three castes came to be spoken of as
twice-bom, and wore the sacred thread. Sudras and women
were excluded from the schools ; and only Brahmans could
teach.
The priest and the sacrifice were now supreme and omni-
potent, and in consequence the religion had become pitifully
degraded. The sacrifice was conceived as a magic system
irresistibly wielding all powers in earth and heaven, and the
* Vedic Index, I. 165.
3Z THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
priests who held the system in their hands were regarded as
gods on earth. Hence, though the gods nominally retain their
old place, they have become>of very little account, stripped of
nearly all their real power by the priests and the sacrifice.
Like the demons, they sacrifice, when they want to obtain
anything. Vishnu, Rudra-Siva, and Prajapati alone are
prominent, because of their relations with the new sacer-
dotalism. Magic is supreme everywhere, in the sacrifice, in
the Atharvan rites in the home, and in the discipline of the
Vanaprastha in the forest. Morality has almost altogether
lost its hold in the cult. The result could not but be an
unbearable inner dissatisfaction in the best men. Hence we
find some eagerly pressing forward towards new light along
philosophic lines, following the lead given by the poets of the
speculative hymns mentioned in our second survey. Two
concepts of great importance, the Brahman and the Atman^
were separately evolved and then identified, thus forming
together a most significant philosophic term for the absolute.*
There were other conceptions also which were undergoing
modification: in the Brahmanas there are a number of
passages ^ in which there is reference to the possibility of re-
peated death in the other world, and men shudder at the
thought.
* Oldenberg, LU. 44^59. ' lb. 27 ff.
CHAPTER II
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE: y to ^oo B.C.
i. Transmigration and Karma,
§ 32. The immense influence which the doctrine of trans-
migration and karma has exercised on almost every element
of Indian thought renders its appearance an event of such
extreme significance as to make it the natural starting-point
of a new period. The date is not known even approximately.
Indian history in the stricter sense opens only with Alexander
the Great's invasion of the Punjab in ^26 B.C. ; so that all
previous events possess only a relative chronology. The life
of the Buddha, now approximately dated 560-480 B.C., forms
the starting-point for the conjectural dating of earlier occur-
rences. Behind his activity we can descry the rise of the
philosophy of the Upanishads, and behind that again the
emergence of the belief in transmigration and karma." The
whole of the literature of the chapter shares this uncertainty ;
only a relative chronology is possible.
It is a very remarkable fact that the belief of the early
people with regard to birth, death, and the other world
underwent such a complete change at this period in their
history. There is no trace of transmigration in the hymns of
the Vedas ; only in the Brahmanas are there to be found a
few traces of the lines of thought from which the doctrine
arose. In the Upanishads, however, and in all later Hindu
literature, the doctrine is universally accepted, and enters as
an active force into almost every element of Hindu thought.
* Sec Keith, //?-45. 1909, 574; 55. 15 ; Oldenberg, Z 6^. 288; Poussin,
WN. 10 ff.; Waddell,//?^5. 1914, 661 ff.
D
34 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
Through the spread of Buddhism the doctrine was accepted
by the population of the centre, the east, and the south of
Asia. It IS thus impossible to exaggerate the importance of
the change with which this chapter opens.
It has been clearly demonstrated that the immediate
sources of both the conceptions-r-transmigration and karma —
are to be found in the Brahmanas ; ^ yet the two are found
linked together in a doctrine of moral requital for the first
time in the Upanishads. The creation, therefore, of this
master-conception is unquestionably the work of the Aryan
mind. Yet the suggestion which many scholars have made,
that the idea pf transmigration must have come from totem-
istic aboriginals who believed that after death their souls lived
in animal bodies, may be, after all, partly true ; for the Aryan
people were not only in daily contact with aboriginals but
had already suffered large infusions of aboriginal blood.
§33. The theory is that souls are born and die many times,
and that a man's conduct in one life determines his position
in the next, good conduct being rewarded, and evil conduct
punished. In the earliest passages^ in which the doctrine
appears, that is all that is stated ; but soon it received a more
definite form :
Those whose conduct has been pleasing, will quickly attain a pleasing
birth, the birth of a Brahman, or a Kshatriya, or a Vaiiya; but those
whose conduct has been abominable, will quickly attain an abominable
birth, the birth of a dog, or a hog, or an Outcaste.'
and this form it was which became the basis of the orthodox
Hindu belief. Caste is the chief element of the requital of
one's action. The word for action, karma^ is used for the
mysterious power which, according to this doctrine, causes
all action to work itself out in requital in another life. The
conception was soon deepened and broadened.^ It was recc^-
nized that a man's body, mind, and character, and also all the
^ Oldenberg, LU, 26-3 5,
^ Brihaddranyaka^ U, III. 2, 13; IV, 4, 5.
' Chhdndogyay 6^. V. ic, 7.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 35
details of his experience were elements of the requital. Men
also recognized that, since each life is the requital of foregoing
action, and since the actions of each new life demand another
for their reward or punishment, the process of birth and
death, samsdrUy can have had no beginning, and can have no
end. The soul was therefore eternal.
It would be well to notice that the theory took form among
polytheists, and included gods, demons, animals, and plants in
its sweep as well as men : there was no living being that was
not subject to the law of rebirth. Nor was there any divine
power that controlled the process : the concept of a Supreme,
exalted high above all the gods, had not risen on the minds
of the men who created the doctrine.
The doctrine would seem to have met a need of the time,
for it steadily spread among cultured men throughout North
India. Clearly the belief was a moral advance on earlier
ideas; for it gave all conduct a moral meaning, and made
every man realize the seriousness of life and his personal
responsibility. Its evil effects did not become evident at
once. For centuries this conception of the world sufficed
for multitudes of thinking Hindus, and it still suffices for the
unthinking masses ; but for others, very soon, an addition
became necessary.
§ 34. We have seen that in the age of the Brahmanas a few
men were already struggling to reach philosophic conceptions
of the world which might form a more satisfactory basis for the
religious life than the gross ritual and magic of the sacrifice.
Terror-struck at the prospect of repeated death in the other
world (an idea frequently referred to in the Brahmanas), men
longed for release from that fate ; and some believed they
had found it in the conviction that the gods and all the
spiritual powers of the world are deathless, and that the man
who, knowing this, brings his own spirit into union with these
powers, wins a sure immortality.^ The doctrine of trans-
migration now seemed to explain the grip which the things of
1 Oldenberg, Z6^. 3iff.
D a
^
36 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
sense have on the human spirit ; it also quickened the desire
for release from the bondage of sense and death ; but the
unbroken series of births and deaths seemed to make the
achievement of immortality and release more difficult than
ever. How was escape possible ? Hence there arose a pas-*
sionate desire to find some means of deliverance ; and from
that passion sprang all the noblest forms of Hindu religious
thought, and Buddhism and Jainism as well. Indeed, it is
but the simple truth to say that karma and rebirth, with
release, have given Indian religious thought its peculiar
flavour.
§ 35' One of the chief historical facts to be realized at this
point is this, that, during this period. South India was
gradually inoculated, and at last thoroughly interpenetrated,
with the religion and culture which had been taking shape in
the north. Three, political events must also be mentioned,
the conquest of the Punjab by Darius, Alexander's raid, and
the rise of the Maurya empire ; for the third, which was a
direct reaction from Greek domination and an imitation of
the Persian system, proved of very large significance for the
history of Buddhism.
ii. T/ie Twice-born and their Literature,
§36. The three twice-born castes— Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
Vai^yas — formed now a large educated community, sharply
divided among themselves, yet far more deeply cut oflF from
the vast Sudra community which served them, and from the
unclean Outcastes with whom they would have nothing to do.
The whole of the literature described in our first chapter was
their exclusive possession, and much more was destined to
come into existence during the period. But, though they
kept themselves rigidly separate from Sudras in all religious
matters, it seems probable that Sudra worship soon began to
exercise an influence on them.
We deal, first of all, with what is, strictly speaking, the
literature of the twice-born, namely works written in expo-
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 37
sition of the earlier literature. In all these books the doctrine
of karma and rebirth is accepted as true, and here and there
the Upanishad theory of release also finds reflection.
§ 37- We mention first what is clearly the earliest form of
Indian philosophy, although its earliest surviving document
cannot be dated earlier than the fourth century after Christ,
and although in its inception it was in no sense philosophical
It is clear that the Karma Mimamsa in some form came into
existence quite early during this period. It is, as*will be ex-
plained later, a method of Vedic exegesis, dealing primarily
with the sacred texts which give injunctions for the sacrifices.
Its interest for us at this point is twofold, first because it is to
this day the special system of the orthodox twice-born man,
and secondly because it retained for many centuries certain
features characteristic of the time of its birth, and indeed
retains some of them to this day. The Mimarhsa reflects the
time when the average educated man was frankly polytheistic,
and thus atheistic from the point of view of theism or
pantheism, when he accepted rebirth and karma but felt no
need of release, and when, like the average unreflecting man,
he took a realistic view of the world. For the understanding
of the developments of this period it is of great importance to
realize that this was the state of mind of nearly all educated
men ^ in the earlier, and probably of the vast majority in the
later, part of the period also.
§ 38. We take next the literature of the Vedic schools.
The basis of all the training is still the process of laying up
in the memory the hymns of the Veda of one's school and the
long chapters of the Brahmana. But a large amount of
ancillary material has now to be mastered by the student as
well as the fundamental texts. The sciences of Vedic expo-
sition, phonetics, grammar, metre, etymology, &c., the begin-
nings of which are found in the Brahmanas, have each grown
in width and complexity as well as in accuracy. The sacrifices,
both minor and major, have grown steadily more intricate
* Cf. Oldenberg, Z 6^. 31.
38 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
and more numerous, and the dharma^ i. e. the law of conduct,
has become a large body of detailed injunctions. Hence, to
enable the student to carry in his mind the vast and varied
masses of information which he required to know, a new
method of teaching was created, the j^/r^-method. The
essential feature of the method is the committing to memory
of a long series of very abbreviated phrases, which serve as
a sort of classified index of the particular subject dealt with.
The method was of service in proportion to the care with
which the subject was arranged, and to the skill with which
the mnemonic phrases were composed. A series of sutras is
more or less incomprehensible by itself; it has always a com-
mentary attached to it, either oral or written, which fills up
the gaps and expounds the thought.
There are four types of sutras which are of large significance
for the religious life, namely the Srauta, the Grihya, and the
Dharma manuals, and the magic-books. The Srauta-sutras
get their epithet brauta from the fact that they are directly
founded on the hymns and the Brahmanas, which are irutiy
i. e. revelation in the highest sense. The Grihya manuals are
' called grikya, i. e. domestic, because they describe the minor
sacrifices and the ritual acts obligatory on the family. The
Dharma manuals lay down the rules of the dharma^ i.e. the
Hindu law of conduct. Of the Srauta-sutras a dozen survive,
of the Grihyas also a dozen, or thirteen, if the Kauiika be
included, and of the Dharma manuals six ; while there are
four noteworthy books on magic.
It is as yet impossible to give any definite chronology of v
the sutras ; but all the surviving works of the Srauta, Grihya,
and Dharma classes (called as a group the Kalpa-sutras)
probably belong to the fifth, fourth, or third centuries.^ Nor
is it yet possible to set them out in the order of their origin.*
§ 39. The Srauta-sutras are hand-books prepared for the use
of priests with reference to the greater Vedic sacrifices, i.e.
^ See the discussions by Keith, A A, 21-5 ; TS. I. xlv-xlvi.
2 But see Keith, TS. I. xlv.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 39
those for which three or more sacrificial fires, and priests
belonging to each of the three orders, were necessary. Thus
each Srauta-sutra depends on one of the three Vedas, and
contains instructions only for the order of priests corresponding
to that Veda. Hence in order fully to understand the cere-
monial of any single sacrifice, it is necessary for the student
to read together the sections on that sacrifice in three Srauta-
sutras. For this certain other manuals, called Paribhashas,
which show how the three strands of the sacrifice fit together,
are used.
§ 40. The Grihya-sutras deal with three groups of subjects.
The first group contains general and detailed rules for the
simpler sacrifices, which were performed on the domestic
fire by the householder himself, if he were a Brahman, or by
a priest appointed by him for the purpose. These offerings
are of three types : (a) melted butter, oil, or milk poured on the
fire ; (b) cooked cakes ; and (c) animal sacrifices. The second
group of subjects are the eighteen sacraments, solemn cere-
monies connected with the great moments of life, such as
birth, the first solid food given to the child, his tonsure, his
initiation as a religious student, his return home after his
education, and marriage. The third is a mixed group,
including house-building rites, the funeral ceremony, the
sraddhas, or offerings to the spirits of deceased ancestors, and
minor observances. As in all these ceremonies there is but
one series of ritual acts and liturgic utterances, the Grihya-
sutras of the three Vedas differ very little from each other
except in the Vedic stanzas they quote.
The Karma Mimamsa, we may remind ourselves, existed in
order that every injunction covered by the Srauta and Grihya
sutras should be faithfully performed. Learned Mimarh-
sakas were usually present at the greater sacrifices to guide
everything.
§ 41. The Dharma-sutras deal not with sacrifice but with
conduct. The word dharma means that which is obligatory,
and is thus similar to the Latin religio. It is used in several
40 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
senses, which vary chiefly in their scope : first, Hinduism as
a whole is the dAarma, just as to Buddhists Buddhism is the
dhamma \ second, the whole religious law, as expressed in the
Srauta, Grihya, and Dharma codes ; third, the laws of conduct :
this is the ordinary meaning, as in the Dharma-sutras and the
later Dharmai^astras ; and fourth, the law of a caste, as in the
Gitd frequently. The Dharma-sutras contain regulations for
the four airamas or forms of Hindu life, viz. the student, the
householder, the hermit, and the ascetic, and the following
special subjects : the king, civil law, criminal law, marriage,
inheritance, funeral rites, penances, and excomniunication.
Originally the Dharma-sutras were each meant to be used
only by members of its own school, but later a number
of them became recognized as valid for all twice-born
men.
The basal principle upon which this law of conduct rests is
the supreme obligation of the caste system. By that a man's
profession and religious duties are determined, as well as his
place in Hindu society. The Brahman is the priest, teacher,
and judge ; the Kshatriya is the ruler and warrior ; the Vaii^ya
turns to agriculture, industry, or trade; the Sudra is the
servant of these three twice -born castes. The Outcastes are
untouchable and are shut out in their filth and their poverty.
All the provisions of the laws of property and crime are
conditioned by caste : the higher a man's caste, the greater
his rights ; the higher the caste of the criminal, the less his
punishment ; the higher the caste of the wronged party, the
greater the penalty. It is well to note that in the time of
these sutras each man chooses his own a^rama, i. e. whether
he is to remain a student, or become a householder, a hermit,
or a sannyasi : these modes of life have not yet become a series
through which each man is expected to pass. Amongst the
fresh regulations, we note two of supreme importance for the
family — the rule that a girl should be married before puberty,^
* Gautama DS, XVIII. 21-23; Vdsishtha DS. XVII. 69-70; Bau-
dhayana DS. IV. i, 11-12.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 41
and the rule that no widow who has borne children should
remarry.^
§ 4Z. The religion reflected in the sutras ^ is polytheistic and
ritualistic. There is no trace of divine incarnation in them,
and no approach to theism. The philosophy of the Atman
is mentioned as a subject of meditation for the sannyasi ; and
in one sutra it is heartily commended to the student on the
ground that there is no higher object than the attainment of
the Atman.^ Necessarily, the whole of the Vedic religion is
represented — the soma-cult, the fire-cult, animal sacrifice, and
the numerous magic rites. Temples and images also appear
side by side with these ancient methods of worship, but we
are told nothing about the temple-cult, the reason seemingly
being that it stands outside the Vedic faith. The old
pantheon remains, but several new divinities appear, chiefly
abstractions — Dharma, religious law ; Kubera, wealth ; Kama,
Cupid. Brahma, whom we meet in the Aranyakas, has also
an honoured place. The worship of snakes, mountains, rivers,
and pools is also found ; and cow-pens are reckoned among
holy places. The doctrine of transmigration and karma is
recognized as true by every one, but the old eschatology is
still in use ; so that there is no unity of treatment. Readers
will note how close the resemblance is to the religion of the
original Epics.
§ 43. The appearance during this period of the sutra-texts
on Magic shows that the practice of the old methods of magic
was still a very living part of the religion ; but we must
notice that these ceremonies did not form part of the obliga-
tory ceremonial law (kalpd)^ but are extra and voluntary.
The chief text, the KauHkasutra which belongs to the Athar-
vaveduy is first of all a Grihya-sutra, but also gives a great deal
of detailed information about magical ceremonies, and makes
much that is far from clear in the Atharvan quite compre-
1 Gautama DS, XVIII. 4-17 ; Vasishtha DS, XVII. 55-68, 74.
* See the careful sketch by Hopkins, kl, 242-63.
' Apastamba DS, I. 8, 22-3.
43 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
hensible. The Rigvidhdna describes the magical effects pro-
duced by the recitation of hymns or single verses of the
Rigveda ; while the Sdmavidhdna Brdhmana shows how the
chants of the Samaveda may be used for superstitious
practices.^ The Adbhuta Brdhmana also belongs to the
Samaveda, and deals with portents and the means to avert
their evil influence. We may also mention here the Gopatha
Brdhmana of the Atharvaveda^ which is a late text of very
varied character, depending on the Vaitdna-sutra,
§ 44. Subsidiary sutras also existed on the measurement of
altars and were called Stdva-sutras, from the word .for a
measuring line, on Phonetics, ^ikshd. Grammar, Vydkarana,
Etymology, Nirukta, Prosody, Chhandas, and Astronomy,
Jyotisha. There were also special forms of the text of the
Rigveda and various ancillary works on minor matters.
A large part of this literature is of no interest for our
subject, as, from the modern standpoint, it is purely secular.
But there is one of these secular books which we must
mention, because of the immense influence it has exerted
over language in India, and its consequent importance
for Indian history. We refer to the Ashtddhydyl or Eight
Chapters of Panini on Vydkarana, Grammar. Panini
lived at Taxila in the far north-west, seemingly about
the middle of the fourth century B.c.^ He may have been
alive when Alexander and his army were entertained in the
city with royal magnificence. In him culminated the move-
ment to make the speech of the Vedic schools a thoroughly
musical, trustworthy, intelligible, and polished instrument ;
and his book has been the norm of the Samskrita^ i.e. the
cultured, speech ever since. Down to his time this language
had gradually changed ; but from the moment when in the
schools of India his book became the standard, Sanskrit
became an unchangeable language. By his day great differ-
ences had . already arisen between the polished tongue and
^ For the date of these texts, see Keith, TS. I. clxvii,
* Keith, TS, I. clxviii.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 43
the current forms of speech : Sanskrit was becoming incom-
prehensible to the uneducated man. Herein lay its dis-
advantage and still lies. But, on the other hand, it remains
permanently intelligible to all cultured men throughout India,
while each vernacular is restricted to its own domain, and also
changes so rapidly that usually in three or four hundred years
its best literature is as foreign to the vulgar as Sanskrit itself.
The whole of this sutra-literature was recognized as reve-
lation of the second grade and was called smrith remembrance,
in contrast with literature of the highest grade^ which, as we
have already seen, was called srutu
§ 45. A famous work on politics, Kautilya's Arthaidstra,
which has recently come to light, though not a religious work,
must be mentioned here on account of the large amount of
detailed information it affords incidentally as to the condition
of religion and morals in Magadha, towards the end of the
period. According to tradition, Kautilya is another name
for Chanakya, Chandragupta's Brahman minister ; but critical
inquiry tends to lead to the conclusion that the work is the
text-book of a school of politics, and that, while probably
part of it is the work of Chanakya, it has been redacted and
interpolated.^ Yet its evidence is of great value, if we give
its date rather wide limits, say from 300 to 100 B.C. It is
a work which no one dealing with Hindu ethics can afford to
neglect. The information it gives about government, law,
crime and its punishment, and the social and economic state
of the countiy is of very great importance. Its evidence with
regard to the religion of Magadha is most interesting. The
popular belief was a wide and varied polytheism ; for not
only are the great gods and many of the minor divinities of
Hinduism mentioned, but the worship of mountains, rivers,
trees and fire, of birds, snakes, and cows and other animals,
is regarded as of great value as a prophylactic against
pestilence, cattle-disease, demons, fire, floods, drought, famine,
* Keith,/^-45. 1916, p. 130. But see also K. V. Rangaswami Aiyangar,
Some Considerations on Ancient Indian Polity y Madras, 1916.
44 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
and other calamities. Numerous ceremonies, incantations, and
magical arts are recommended for such purposes also.
Readers will note how well this fits in with the evidence
of the epics and the sutras. Another aspect of the book is
its eschatology. It does not seem to mention transmigra-
tion, karma, or release at all. In all these features the work
is very similar to the edicts of Ai^oka. The following is the
basis of the moral and religious teaching of the treatise :
The observance of one's own duty leads one to heaven {svarga) and
• infinite bliss {anantya). When it is violated, the world will come to an
end owing to confusion of castes and duties. Hence the king shall never
allow people to swerve from their duties. . . . For the world, when main-
tained in accordance with the injunctions of the triple Veda, will surely
progress, but never perish.^
This is precisely the position of the Karma Mimamsa. The
work recommends the Sahkhya, Yoga, and Lokayata philo-
sophies. The first and the last of the three are atheistic, and
it is practically certain that at this date the Yoga was so
also.
iii. The Epics,
§ 46. The epics of India, the Mahdbhdrata and the Rdmd"
yanUy which were originally heroic narratives, became in the
course of their history religious works, and are of extreme
importance as evidence on the subject of the religion of the
common people and with regard to the rise of the sects of
Hinduism. But they are so vast that they are apt to fill the
virgin inquirer with utter dismay; and in the case of the
Mahdbhdrata^ the contents present such an extraordinary
medley — explained to us as arising from interminable inter-
polations and the operations of countless editors each with
a policy of his own — that they deepen the feeling to blank
despair. Yet, taken in the right way, they ought to prove
very fruitful. The parts of each poem must be read at the
points of the history where they appeared.
1 I. iii.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 45
Scholars seem to be coming steadily nearer unanimity as
to the three essential moments in the history of the epics.
They are practically the same for both. All three stages
are very fully represented in the Makdbhdrata^ but it is in
the Rdmdyana that the first and the second can be most
easily studied, while the third, which is only faintly represented
in it, attains enormous proportions in the Mahdbhdrata. They
are as follows :
A. The epics composed as popular poems : sixth, fifth, or
fourth century B. C.
B. The epics changed into sectarian poems by Vaishnava
priests : second century B. c.
C. Vaishnava theism in both epics : the Mahdbhdrata
becomes a huge encyclopaedia of theology, philo-
sophy, politics, and law : first and second cen-
turies A. D.
There is perhaps not quite so much unanimity with regard
to the dates suggested as to the three distinct movements.^
All would acknowledge further that fragments of material
found their way into the Mahdbhdrata in still later centuries.
§47. In this chapter, then, we deal only with the first stage.
The roots of popular epic poetry lie very far back, in dramatic
stories in the Vedic hymns and narratives in the Brahmanas ; *
and it is probable that the first attempts at actual epics
(possibly indeed a rudimentary Mahdbhdrata^ or Rdmdyana)
go back as far as the age of the Brahmanas ; for since the >y
epic is popular, and its language is Sanskrit, it must have
originated at a time when the warriors in the chieftain's hall
understood heroic songs in Sanskrit, that is, a time when the
popular and the cultured speech were still near enough to be
practically one. That in India, as in Greece, the epic arose
from the song that glorified the noble deed, stands out clearly
* Holtzmann, J/i5//. I. Sff.; 126 ff.; 152 ff.; Jacobi, /?.24ff.; 60 ff.; loofF.;
Macdonell, SL. 285-6; 305-12; Hopkins, GE, 397-8; Wintemitz, I.
389 ff.; 423 ff.
' Macdonell, 280-1 ; Keith, A A. 196 n. 19.
46 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
in the ancient evidence. The early songs were sung ; and the
more elaborate compositions founded on them were either
sung or recited with eloquent declamation and dramatic
gesture.^
Scholars agree that the first rounded Mahdbhdrata and the
first completed Rdmdyana arose from these earlier efforts, and
that they both appeared in the same age, between 600 and
306 B. C. ; ^ but unanimity has not yet been reached on the
question as to which came first.^ For our purpose, however,
the question is of little importance. We need merel}^ re-
cognize that both were already in existence by 300 B. C. and
that both may have arisen a good deal earlier. The features
of the two epics, the place where they arose, the way in which
they were formed from earlier pieces and other interesting
problems, are discussed by the critics.* Strictly speaking, the
original epics ought not to come into our survey; for they
were not composed as religious works, but as heroic
poems. Yet their subsequent history changed them into
religious works of very great importance, and the original
material is a source of religious history all the more valuable
because it is indirect.
§ 48. We shall take the shorter epic first, as it is easier to
detach the original Rdmdyana from its accretions than to
reach the genuine Bhdrata amidst the immeasurable masses
of extraneous material in which it is buried. Scholars agree
that of the seven books of which the Rdmdyana consists, the
whole of the first ^ and the seventh books are later additions.
Thus Books II-VI represent the genuine old epic. But even
* Holtzmann, MBH, I. 52 ff. ; Hopkins, GE, 363-7.
" Macdonell, 5/:. 285 ; 306-7; Hopkins, C^^". VI ; Keith, //?^ 6*. 191 5,
3i8fr.
' Jacobi puts the Ramayana first, R, 60 ff.; so Macdonell, SL. 306,
but see also ERE, X. 576 ; Hopkins sets the Bharata epic first, then the
Rdmdyana^ then the Pandu epic, GE» 60-1 ; 238-9.
* Jacobi, R. Ii9fr. ; Holtzmann, MBH, I. I5ff. ; Macdonell, SL. 310;
Hopkins, GE, 79 bxiA passim,
* With the exception of verses 5 to 8 of Canto V, which Jacobi, /?. 55,
believes formed the first lines of Valmlki*s work.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 47
in these books there are numerous passages that have been
foisted on the text by reciters. Most of them are either
variants, which make the details of the story harder to follow,
or repetitions, which weary the reader intolerably ; so that,
before scanning text or translation, it would be well to put
up a danger-signal beside each morass.^ Estimates of the
date of Valmiki*s work vary from the sixth to the fourth
century B. C.^
\^lmiki's poem helps us to understand the religion the
more because it is a secular work ; for it gives us an un-
disturbed reflection of some aspects of the popular faith.
And we do well to look at it carefully ; for from a very early
date the work has been read as a mirror of character ; and in
its enlarged form the Rdmdyana is still the first of all Vish- v/
nuite scriptures. Religion, then, in the original work is still
frankly polytheistic and external. There are no sects. Every
one acknowledges all the gods ; and worship is made by
means of sacrifice, usually animal sacrifice. There is no
mention here of the philosophy of the Atman. The sannydsl
never appears; but at every turn the ancient vdnaprastha.
There is no approach to anything like a theism. The idea^^**
of divine incarnation never occurs ; Rama from beginning to
end is a man and only a man : he is a great hero, but there
is no suggestion that he is in any sense a god. Most of the
old gods of the Veda are mentioned ; and there is no monarch
among them, although Indra may receive a little more re-
cognition than the others. A number of new divinities have
taken their places among the famous early gods, especially
Kama, Kubera, Sukra, and Karttikeya, and the following
goddesses: Ganga, the Ganges, with Lakshml and Uma, the
* The following are the chief interpolations recognized by Jacobi : II.
41-9,66-93, 107, 17-111, 117, 5-119; ni. 1-14; IV. 17-18,40-43,45-7-5
y* 4i~55, 58-64, 66-8 ; VI. 23-40, 59-60, 69, 74-5. Besides these, there
is one very late canto which would confuse the reader seriously, viz. VI. 1 19.
' Jacobi, R. 100-112, inclines to the sixth, or even the eighth century.
The latest careful review of the question is by Keith, //?-45'. 191 5, 318.
He inclines to the fourth century as the true date, and Macdonell agrees :
ERE. X. 576.
'J
48 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
Wives of Vishnu and Siva. Semi-divine animals, Sesha, the
snake, Hanuman, the monkey, Jambavan, the bear, Garuda,
the eagle, Jatayus, the vulture, and Nandi, Siva's bull, are
quite prominent. Vishnu and Siva, who in the later Vedas
and the Brahmanas are far more important than they are in
the Rik^ here maintain that prominence. Snakes, trees, rivers,
and lakes are also worshipped. It is of importance to note
that temples and images of the gods are common, and that
animal sacrifice is the usual offering. There is no allusion to
the phallus of Siva. Innumerable superstitions haunt the
religious consciousness. The doctrine of transmigration and
karma is everywhere accepted an.d applied to life, but it is
not yet full grown. Men do not understand all its implica-
tions, and parts of the old scheme of things still survive.
§49. The original heroic Mahdbhdrata is much harder to
isolate, chiefly because it was redacted with greater care and
persistence by the priests than the companion poem. It is
referred to in the epic itself; for in the first section of the
first book as it stands to-day, we are told that the Bhdrata
consists of 8,800 verses, of 24,000 verses, and of 100,000
verses. These three computations correspond to the three
stadia in the composition of the poem referred to above.
Thus the work we are thinking of here contained 8,800 verses.
No scholar has yet undertaken to separate out the component
passages, and reform the ancient work ; so that it cannot be
studied precisely in the same way as the original Rdmdyana ;
but the student may form some idea of its character by
reading one of the oldest episodes, Nala,^ or Savitri,* or the
famous gambling scene,^ or some of the battle-scenes from
Book VIII or IX, though even in these the trail of the redactor
will be crossed here and there.
Then scholars are quite able to see the religious charac-
teristics of the old poem, though they cannot extricate it from
the clinging mass of fresh growth. The religion is polytheistic
and ritualistic through and through ; sectarianism has not yet
MIL 52ff. Mil. 292 ff. MI. 46-73. •
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 49
appeared ; there is no theism in it, no divine incarnation, no ^
exposition of the Atman doctrine. The three chief gods seem
to be Indra, Brahma, and Agni, but the whole of the old
pantheon survives. Dharma, i.e. Law, and Kama, Love, —
appear as divinities, and Krishna appears also, but whether as
god o\ man is not yet known with certainty.
Epic society is dominated by caste ; yet there is far more
social freedom than at later stages of Hindu history ; and
women in particular have a good deal of liberty. Brahmans,
in contravention of the regular rule, often become warriors.
Hindus have not yet become vegetarians : everybody eats
beef. The polyandry of Draupadi is clearly a historical trait
which has persisted in the story, despite its naturally repulsive
character.
§50. One of the chief problems of this period is the rise of ^
the god Krishna, who seems to have had as one of his epithets
the title Vasudeva. Some scholars believe that in the original
Mahabhdrata he was a man and only a man,^ and that he was ~
deified at a rather later date. Others affirm that he is always —
a god in the Mahabhdrata? Of these some suppose that he
was originally a vegetation-spirit, others that he was a sun-god.
It is certainly clear that he was already a god of some sort in
the fourth century B.C.; for in Panini's grammar^ Vasudeva s/
and Arjuna appear as a pair of divinities. Megasthenes, a
Greek ambassador at the court of Chandragupta about 300 B. c,
has a sentence which seems to mean that Krishna was wor — -
shipped at Mathura and Krishnapur. In the Mahdndrdyana —
Upanishad^ which is probably not later than the third century
B.C., there is a litany in which the title Vasudeva is used as an "
epithet of Vishnu, which seems to mean that Krishna was
already in some sense identified with Vishnu. Finally, in the
Makdbkdskya ^ of Pataiijali, which was probably written about
150 B.C., Vasudeva is spoken of as a divinity. ^
* Hopkin?, ION. 105 (but see below) ; Grierson, ERE. II. 541 ; Garbe,
JC. 210.
« K€\\h,JRAS. 1915, 548 ; Hopkins, GE. 395, n, 3; RL 467-8.
• IV. 3. 98. * I. 31. • " On Panini, IV. 3. 98.
E
50 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
/ Sir R. G. Bhandarkar ^ has a notable theory of his own on
the subject. He distinguishes between Vasudeva and Krishna.
He believes that Vasudeva was originally a man belonging to
the Satvata tribe, that he lived in the sixth century B.C., if not
earlier, and that he taught the people of his tribe a monotheistic
religion. Some time after his death he was deified by his own
people and identified with the one personal God whom he had
preached. He was thereafter identified, first with Narayana,
then with Vishnu, and finally with the cowherd god of Mathura,
Gopala Krishna. From the sect which worshipped this god
there arose, according to this theory, the famous poem, the
"^ Bhagavadgltd, Grierson,^ Winternitz,^ and Garbe * accept the
theory, and support it ardently, but Hopkins * and Keith ®
hold that it can be shown to be unhistorical ; and most scholars
seem to follow them. There is certainly no clear evidence
^ of the existence of a monotheistic faith during those early
centuries.
, § 51 . In the Epics and the Sutras we meet the first references
*^ to Hindu temple-and-image worship. But it is most noteworthy
that, by the side of the minute instructions for the sacrifices
given in the Kalpa-sutras, no directions for the temple-cult
appear. The latter seems to be merely tolerated by the side
of the orthodox cult. Then, at a later date, when the
Vaishnavas and the Saivas organized themselves as sects,
— worshipping Vishnu and Siva by temple and image, they were
condemned as unorthodox ; and the taint remains to some
extent to the present day. It is also important to realize that
from the earliest times at which we catch glimpses of the
organization of Hindu temple-worship, there are stringent
rules to the effect that the priests must be Brahmans, and
that the temples are open to all men and women of the four
castes — Brahman, Kshatriya, Vai^ya, Sudra — but to no others.
What the history behind these facts is, it is as yet impossible
1 VS. Chaps. IV, VII, VIII, IX.
« ERE, II. 540 ff. » I. 373. * IC. 215 ff.
5 JRAS. 1905, 384. « JRAS. 1915, 548; ib. 1917, 173.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 51
to say with certainty.^ One of the largest interests of the
later history of Hindu worship is the slow but steady weaken-
ing of the old sacrificial cult under the pressure of the more
attractive temple-system.
iv. Systems of Release.
§52. On the basis of ideas expressed in the philosophic
hymns of the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda^ there were
evolved in the time of the Brahmanas two conceptions of the
Absolute, the Brahman and the Atman^ the Self, the former
drawn either from the concept of the supernatural power
resident in holy things ^ or from reflection on the outer world,^
the latter drawn from the subjective life of man. The ideas
were then combined, with the result that the Absolute was
thought of as both the source of all things and as a spiritual
being. The Brahman- Atman thus came to be the phrase for
the one spiritual reality, unchanging, universal, free from all
earthly bonds, from birth and death, pain and sorrow ; and
• So far as the evidence goes, it would seem that for many centuries
after their entrance into India the Aryan people used no images, erected
no temples, and recognized no sacred places. Their cult consisted of
the sacrifices, and these were private and personal, and were carried
oat within a man's own house or domains, or wherever the performance
was desirable. On the other hand, the facts of modern India suggest
that the sacred spot, with its local shrine and image or symbol, open to
all the people of the tribe, is a very old aboriginal institution. It seems
as if the Aryans and the aborigines were very sharply divided in their
conceptions of worship as well as in other matters. If this inference then
is justifiable, it would be natural to conjecture that, when, at a very early
period, masses of the aborigines were admitted to intercourse with the
conquering Aryans and called Sudras, they carried with them into the
Aryan community their temple-and- image worship; and that this cult
was at some later date regularized, either by the appointment of real
Brahmans as ministrants, or by the recognition of the actual incumbents
as Brahmans. If we could be sure that the second of these alternatives
is what actually happened, we should then have a really adequate historical
reason for the very curious fact that, to this day and all over India,
temple-ministrants are held in much less consideration than other
Brahmans. There is one point which is absolutely clear, namely this,
that the essential elements of the temple-cult — the sixteen operations,
shodaia upachdra—2irt so distinct in character from the sacrificial cult as
to betray an alien origin.
• Oldenberg, LU, 44-52 ; Poussin, WN, 22.
• Deussen, AGP. I. 240 ff.
E %
52 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
the nobler minds of the time longed to be released from the
doom of repeated death in the other world, and to reach
immortality and the peace of the Atman.
A. T/te Upanishads,
§ bi' When the doctrine of rebirth and karma arose, it made
the phenomenal world and human life seem much more
unsatisfactory and enslaving than before, and therefore created
in the best men a deeper desire than ever for release from all
earthly conditions, and especially from rebirth.
Then some courageous thinker, conscious to the utmost not
only of the kinship and similarity of his own atman to the
universal Atman, but also of the unlimited outlook and desire
of the human spirit, took the bold leap and declared the two
identical : * My atman is the universal Atman whole and
undivided.' The immediate consequence of this outreach of
conviction was necessarily a vivid consciousness of uplift above
all merely phenomenal conditions, of community of life and
privilege with God, and an immovable conviction of release
from transmigration and all its bonds.
The conviction spread to others, and soon there was a
company of men who regarded themselves as liberated. In
their exaltation of mind, and in their fear lest the old worldly
life should rob them of their new-found treasure, they gave up
completely the life of the family and the world, and became
wandering, homeless, celibate ascetics, without possessions,
without responsibilities, devoted altogether to the life of the
Atman. They were c?iXi^A parivrdjakas^ wanderers, bkikskus,
beggars, sannydstSy renouncers. They found a life that was
a fitting expression of their new experience in a complete
renunciation of the world and of all the rules of society. They
wandered about, giving their time to meditation, discussion,
and teaching, sleeping at the foot of a tree, getting their food
by begging. In numerous episodes we see them conversing
and discussing in the woods, in the villages, at kings' courts,
and at sacrifices.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 53
One of the most remarkable facts about these men is this,
that they gave up the old worship completely. This is the
point at which they are most clearly distinguishable from the
older order of ascetics, the vdnaprasthas. The sacrifices were
meant to induce the gods to grant to their worshippers *
health, wealth, and all the other pleasures of life. Of what
service, then, could they be to men who, having found the
Atman, had therein found full satisfaction and no longer looked
to material things for comfort and consolation ? The ancient
worship, and with it all the learning on which it rested, had
thus become worthless to them.^ The corroding effect of
philosophic thought had thus already gone a long way. Yet,
though they took no further part in the sacrifices, they still
believed in the gods and demigods and the old mythology.
These stilL formed to them part of the totality of things
explained by their belief in the Brahman- Atman.
Some scholars hold that the new teaching arose among the
Kshatriyas, the warrior caste, and was only at a later date
accepted by the Brahmans ; ^ but most scholars believe that,
while Kshatriyas and people of lower castes, and women as
well as men, took part in the discussions and rejoiced in the
new beliefs, the main part in the evolution of the doctrine
was taken by Brahmans. It is certainly true that the root of
every single idea involved in the new philosophy is found in
the earlier Brahmanical books.^
§ 54, At first the teaching seems to have been carried on
exclusively in free discussions anywhere and everywhere, and
the new ideas and the new life were open to everybody ; but
finally the Brahmanical schools began to teach it as the last
subject of their curriculum, and there it took root and grew.
At first doubtless the teaching was given in extempore
freedom, only certain great phrases expressing the central
ideas, such as Tat tvam ast\ * Thou art that ', i.e. * Thou art
* Poussin, IVN. 9, 29.
' Deussen, P6^. 17, 120,396; Garbe, Beitrdge^ 23; Winternitz, I, 199.
» Oldenberg, ZC/. 166; Keith, AA, 50, 257; JRAS, 1915, 550.
54
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
the Brahman-Atman *, being given in fixed form ; but
gradually the lectures received settled expression ; and they
were then communicated to the pupils and by them com-
mitted to memory, precisely as the hymns and the Br^hmanas
were handed on. From this time onward, then, only
Brahmans taught the doctrine, and only men of the three
twice-born castes were allowed to hear it. From this circum-
stance, doubtless, the name * Upanishad ', * secret doctrine \^
arose.
The outcome of this teaching was the \ early Upanishadsi
Each consists of a great many distinct pieces of teaching, oi
varying value, character, and length, products of the activity
of many minds and of many years of advancing thought.
They are in simple discursive prose, and show clearly the
process of transition from the old sacrificial teaching of the
Brahmanas to philosophy. Amidst the prose, brief passages
in verse occur in a few places. To this group of early prose
works there belong six treatises, distributed as follows among
the Vedic schools :
Vedas.
I. ?LIK
II. SAM AN
III.
/BLACK
I YAJUS
[WHITE
V YAJUS
Schools,
{ Aitareyins
( Kaushltakins
J Tandins
I Talavakaras
Taittirlyas
Vajasaneyias
Upanishads,
Aitareya
Kaushitaki
Chhandogya
Kena
Taittiriya
Brihadaranyaka
Since each Upanishad is a collection of pieces of varying
date, it is not possible to arrange these six compilations in
order of seniority ; yet their relative age may be approxi-
mately indicated. Deussen's order is:^ i. Brihadaranyaka.
a. Chhandogya. 3. Taittiriya, 4. Aitareya. 5. Kaushitaki.
* Such is the usual explanation of the word (Deussen, PU, lo-ii;
Keith, A A. 239). Oldenberg holds that it means ^reverential medita-
tion* (Z 6^. 37, 155).
2 PU, 23.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 55
6. Kena ; and Macdonell ^ and Winternitz ^ follow him. Keith,
however, holds that the Aitareya is earlier even than the
BrikaddranyakUy and that it does not teach the doctrine of
transmigration.^ If that be so, it does not enter into our
discussion here. Oldenberg* takes the Aitareya along with
the Brihaddranyaka and the Chhdndogya^ and also suggests
rather tentatively that the lid^ which other scholars regard as
a later text, and the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brdhmana should
be included among these six early works. In any case it is
clear that the Brihaddranyaka and the Chhdndogyd are by
far the most important of the six ; for in them all the leading
ideas are first clearly developed.
It was mainly in the land of the Jumna and the Ganges,
from Kurukshetra to Benares, that the original discussions
which created the new thought took place ; and in the schools
of the same regions the Upanishads took form. Since these
treatises were formed by a process of slow growth and
accretion, and were preserved, not in writing, but in human
memories, it is not possible to fix on any definite dates for
their composition. Yet it is clear that the teaching had
taken very definite form, and was influencing men's thoughts
far and wide, when Gautama, the Buddha, began to teach
about 525 B. c. ; and scholars believe that we may safely
assume that by 500 B.C., this body of literature was already
in existence in very much the same shape as it has come
down to us.^
§55. The essential aim of the Upanishads is to explain
reality, to discover the Absolute. All the ideas of the
teaching circle round the great conception of Brahman-
Atman, the source, the support, and the reality of the
universe. The human self is not a part of the divine Self,
but is the Brahman-Atman whole and undivided. It is
knowledge that gives release. The man who in his own self
* 226. 2 i^ 20^^ s ^^- ^3. 55^ ,5^ 4 i^u^ 341^
" Hopkins, YT, 336, gives the sixth century as the date. Oldenberg
suggests still earlier dates, LU. 288, and also Poussin, WN, 10.
56 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
realizes the truth of the Atman is thereby liberated from the
chains of transmigration and from the slavery of worldly
things. He is an emancipated spirit, at death will enter into
bliss, and will never be reborn. Through his liberation he
enters at once upon a blessed experience ; for he then begins
to know the peace, immortality, and freedom of the supreme
Atman. These lines of belief run through the Upanishads
everywhere ; and the mass of the teaching seeks to illustrate
these positions and to create the conviction that they are true.
But there is no articulated system taught.^ Outside the
leading ideas, the teaching is by no means uniform. The
relation of the Brahman to the material world is expressed ia
several ways. In many passages the reality of the world is
assumed; Bi:ahman created it and entered into it; he per-
vades it and extends beyond it. In others the reality of the
Brahman is stated so forcibly as almost to leave the impression
that the world is an illusion. One there is, and there is no
second. Only the great spiritual Unity exists ; there is no
manifold such as our eyes see in nature. He who affirms
that the manifold exists does not know the One. In these
idealistic passages great stress is also laid on the unknow-
ableness of the Atman. He is a subject without an object,
the universal Subject, far uplifted beyond the need of
any object, and therefore far beyond human under-
standing. Similarly, while the Atman is usually con-
ceived impersonally, there are many phrases which, if strictly
interpreted, imply personality. He is called * the inner
Guide ' ; at his bidding sun and moon stay asunder ; he
causes men to do good works and to do evil works. The
truth is, these wonderful treatises were not meant to build up
a complete philosophical temple for the human mind, but
rather to provide materials to stab the spirit awake, to open
the eyes to the spiritual world, and to lead men to realization
of God and renunciation of the world.
* Deussen expounds them as teaching an idealistic system: PU. 231,
398 ; but Oldenberg, LU, 59-104 a.nd passim, and Keith, SS. 5, recognize
fully the variant conceptions.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 57
The Atman is bliss, and the man who realizes his identity
with the Atman enters into peace, but, apart from the Atman,
all else is full of sorrow. AH that comes into existence is
evil. There is thus in the teaching of the Upanishads a basis
for pessimism ; but their general tone is by no means
pessimistic.^ Emancipation fills many a passage with a
joyous radiance.
There are many strikingly beautiful and effective passages
in these works ; here a few sentences which recall the Psalms,
there a brief paragraph which reminds one of Plato. There
is a simple sincerity about them, and a childlike naturalness
of vision which are very attractive. There are parts of these
works which will take a high and permanent place in the
world's best literature. But, after* all, the books are but
compilations ; and, beside these lofty prophesyings which
reveal the Indian mind at its noblest and greatest, there are
many passages as futile and worthless as the poorest twaddle
of the Brahmanas. The Brahman compiler had not yet learnt
to separate the wheat from the chaff.
§56. The passion for release and the example of these
wandering ascetics stirred many other groups of men to
thought and inquiry ; so that by the middle of the sixth
century there were many leaders, each with his doctrine of
release and his ascetic discipline, preaching on the plains of
the north. These we merely mention now, for we must
follow the school of the Upanishads to the end of the period.
The original Upafaishads, which we dealt with above, con-
tinued to be taught orally in their respective schools as the
source of that knowledge of the Brahman- Atman which brings
release from the bonds of karma and transmigration. But
men had begun to realize that many passages in these treatises
were worthless for the end in view ; and the awkwardness of
carrying a long piece of discursive prose in the memory as
a spiritual tonic constantly obtruded itself ; while the verses
interspersed proved potent as teaching and easy to remember.
* See Keith, SS. 1$; Oldenberg, LI/, iisff- .
58 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
Hence arose a new series of short Upanishads in verse; which
are the sole surviving product of the teaching given in the
schools on the subject of the Atman during these centuries.
Their purpose in the main is, not to introduce fresh teaching,
but to express in more convenient form what was now the
settled orthodox belief of the sannyasi schools. We here set
them out in the order of their age * and in their connexion
with the Vedic schools :
Veda, School, Upanishad,
BLACK YAJ US Kathakas Kathaka
WHITE YAJUS Vajasaneyins Ikd
BLACK YAJUS Svetaivatara
ATH ARYAN Mundaka
B LAC K Y A J U S •Taittiriyas Mahdnaraya$ta
It is impossible to give precise dates for any one of these
poems, but most scholars would agree that, if we place the
Kathaka about 500 B.C.,* and the Mahdndrdyana in the third
century,^ we shall not be far wrong.
While it is true that the purpose of these treatises is rather
a restatement of teaching than an advance in thought, yet the
changes inevitable in the centuries appear in them. These are
in the main in two directions. There is a distinct advance
shown in the capacity for sustained thinking, and the subject
is developed in more orderly sequence than in the earlier
works.* There is a tendency towards the exaltation of Vishnu
and Siva as symbols of Brahman, and an increasing emphasis
is laid on self-discipline.
The introduction of Vishnu and Siva leads to a movement
of thought in the direction of theism. In the Kathaka there
is little advance, but in the Isd we meet with the word which
is used in later literature to denote the personal Supreme in
Hinduism, Isa^ Isvara^ Lord. In the ^vetdsvatara and in
the Mundaka the personal God stands out face to face with
* Deussen, PU, 24.
« Oldenberg, LU. 203; 288; 357; Keith, SS, 9.
» Keith, //?-45. 1908, 171 «. 2. * Oldenberg, LU. 206.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 59
the personal soul ; yet the philosophy is monistic, and the
full identity of the individual and the universal Atman is
maintained.^ In the ^vetdsvatara Siva is introduced under
his old name Rudra ; and, for the first time in Hindu literature,
devotional feeling, bhaktiy is spoken of as due to him. He is
said to control the whole process of karma and transmigration.
When God is clearly conceived as a person, He is necessarily
distinguished from the material universe as well as from the
human soul. But the Svetdsvatara^ while it suggests divine
personality in several ways, is unwilling to give up the ancient
monism. Hence the material world is declared to h emdvd.
illusion, so that Brahman may remain the All as well as the
One. This idea is of transcendent importance in the later
religion.
In the hermitages of the Vanaprasthas, the austerities which
were originally used to win supernatural power were employed
to discipline the body and mind for religious purposes, the
ends sought through the discipline being intercourse with the
gods, purity of character, and an etherealized body;^ and
the word yoga? * yoking ', * restraint *, was used to cover the
whole range of these regulated methods of physical and
mental control. In the verse Upanishads these methods
are heartily commended for use in the search for Brahman.*
In the old Upanishads, when the idea of the Atman is reached
by a rigorous process of abstraction, the result is an idealistic
conception, a mind which is a subject without an object,
a knower that is unknowable. This led quite naturally to the
belief that, in order to apprehend the Unknowable in mystic
vision, the soul must be disciplined to perfect stillness ; and to
this end the restraining methods of yoga were prescribed. In
so far also as ethical conditions were regarded as a pre-
condition of the. enlightenment which is emancipation, the
* See Bamett,/^^5. 1910, 1363.
• Chhdndogya U, V. 10, i : II. 23, i : Ratndyana^ II. Uv; III. i ; v ; xii.
• Taittiriya i/. II. 4. - c
♦ Oldenberg,Z£/. 258 ff.; Keith, 55. 55.
6o TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
practice of yoga was r^arded as helpful. In the Kdthaka
and in the Svetdhtatara yoga methods are very seriously
commended ; and we shall find that the early Buddhists were
led by similar motives to similar practices. Along with
the description of these exercises, a theory which explains
them is stated in outline three times over in the Kdthaka^
and it reappears in the Svetdsvatara. It is not discussed in
detail ; yet the conceptions expressed and the technical terms
used make it quite clear that it is the germ of what is known
in later literature as the Sankhya philosophy.^
In these treatises also the Vedanta first occurs as the name
of the philosophy of the Upanishads. Both groups of Upani-
shads were attached to the Brahmanas of the schools to which
they belonged, and were recognized as iruH^ revelation of the
highest grade.
B. Many Schools.
§ 57. From the prose Upanishads and the earliest Jain and
Buddhist literature it is plain that by the middle of the sixth
century many speculative systems were already being taught,^
each represented by a leader and his following of monks ; for
asceticism was as essential to the system-teacher in India then
as the philosopher's cloak was in ancient Greece. Some of
these teachers were not far removed from the sannyasis of the
Upanishads, many were much more sceptical, while some \vere
thorough-going materialists. It is not possible to sketch the
systems clearly, but one significant fact stands out undeniable^,
that a number of them were distinctly atheistic, like th^
Karma Mimamsa. The chief were the systems which came
to be known as Jainism and Buddhism, but there were others.
Clearly for a long time, seemingly for several centuries, the
doctrine of the Brahman-Atman laid hold of only a small
proportion of thinking Hindus, while the vast majority re-
^ For the exposition of these passages, see Deussen, PU. 249-53;
Oldenberg, LU, 203-6 ; Keith, 6'6'. 9-14.
^hys Davids, ALB. 30 if. ; Poussin, WN. 60.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 6i
tained the ancient Vedic polytheistic outlook. This accounts
for the Karma Mimamsa, Jainism, Buddhism, and other early
atheisms, and also for the emergence of the Sankhya and the
Vai^eshika at later dates. Two further elements of the intel-
lectual atmosphere of those days render the atheistic attitude
of the mass, and the materialistic standpoint of many, more
comprehensible, first the world-constraining power credited to
the sacrifice in the Yajurveday and secondly the automatic
character of the theory of transmigration and karma as usually
taught : ^ there seemed to be no need for a ruler of the universe.
It seems most probable that the materialistic school, known
in India as Lokayata for two thousand years, was already in
existence.^
It is probable that the Sankhya and Yoga systems appeared,
in early forms which we cannot now reconstruct, in the fourth
or third century B. c. Dates are very doubtful : all we can be
sure of is that the Sankhya comes in the main from the
philosophy of the early and the verse Upanishads,^ and that
the Yoga, while also indebted to the Upanishads, springs
ultimately from popular magic and hypnotism.* Siidras were
admitted to the order of Sankhya ascetics as readily as twice-
born men, and both Sudras and Outcastes could become
yogis: so that from the time of the foundation of these
schools the pursuit of release was open to these classes within
Hinduism itself.
§ 58. Amongst these clashing systems were two, now known
as Jainism and Buddhism, whose principles speedily set them
outside Hinduism and made them rival faiths. They were
both founded by Kshatriyas. While both systems recognized
all the gods and demigods of the Hindu pantheon, they spoke
of them as of little strength and importance as compared
with their own leaders. They therefore taught that it was
folly to worship them, that the Veda was untrue, and the
> Poussin, WN, 58.
' Poussin, WN. 61; Keith, /^-^5. 1917, 175, n, 2.
' Oldenberg, Z6^. 211 ; Keith, SS. Ch. I ; Deussen, AGP. I. iii. 15.
* Garbe, SY. 34 flf. ; Oldenberg, LU. 258 ff.
6a TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
priestly work of the Brahmans valueless. Both systems
offered release to men of every race and caste. It is true
that, in order to win release, it was necessary to become
a monk. The laity could make a little progress, but could
not expect to reach the goal until they accepted the life of
renunciation. Yet, even so, this was a great advance on con-
ditions within the school of the Upanishads, in which only
men of the three highest castes could become sannyasis and
press on to release. Hinduism could not fail to condemn
both systems as heresies. Jainism is the earlier of the two,
but we take Buddhism first because of it we have far fuller
and clearer information than of Jainism.
C. The Buddhist School,
§ 59. Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, the most potent
and attractive personality among all the sons of India and one
of the greatest of men, was born at Kapilavastu,on the borders
of Nepal, almost due north of Benares, about 560 B. C, the
son of a nobleman of the Sakya clan. When about thirty
years of age, he left his wife, his little son, and his father, and
renounced the world. He became a disciple of several teachers
in succession, but did not find satisfaction in their teaching
and resolved to seek truth for himself. Finally, at the spot
now known as Buddh-Gaya, in Bihar, his system took shape
in his mind. From this time, somewhere about 525 B.C., until
his death at the age of eighty (c, 4806,0.), he spent all his
energy in teaching his principles. He held that the final
truth had appeared in him and therefore called himself the
Buddha, the enlightened one. Since he was accepted by his
followers as a full authority in matters of faith and life, his
death must have been an irremediable loss to them. No one
was appointed in his place : his teaching must now be their
guide. That teaching, preserved in the memories of his
disciples and gradually modified and expanded as time passed,
finds expression in the Canon.
§ 60. His was an eminently practical system. He regarded
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 63
life as full of suffering and believed that his teaching provided
the medicine necessary for the healing of men. He taught
that the cause of suffering was desire, and sought to show the
way whereby desire might be extinguished and release from
karma and transmigration and every other form of suffering
might be won. He invited men and women to the monastic
life, in which under his guidance, as he believed, the nirvana,
i. e. the extinction, of desire, might speedily be accomplished.
Those who reached nirvana in this life, at death would enter
final nirvana,^ and would not be born again.
He expressed the leading Weas of his system in clear and
simple forms, and in the vernacular : all early Buddhist books
are in the vernacular. The basis of the whole is given in the
Four Noble Truths :
1. The noble truth of misery. Birth is misery; old age is misery;
disease is misery ; death is misery ; sorrow, lamentation, misery,
grief, and despair are misery ; to wish for what one cannot have
is misery ; in short, all the five attachment-groups are misery,
2. The noble truth of the origin of misery. It is desire leading to
rebirth, joining itself to pleasure and passion, and finding delight
in every existence, — desire, namely, for sensual pleasure, desire for
permanent existence, desire for transitory existence,
3. The noble truth of the cessation of misery. It is the complete fading
out and cessation of this desire, a giving up, a loosing hold, a re-
linquishment, and a non-adhesion.
4. The noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of misery. It is
this noble eightfold path, to wit, right belief, right resolve, right
speech, right behaviour, right occupation, right effort, right watch-
fulness, right concentration.'
In discussing this path the Buddha explained that it was
a middle course which shunned two extremes, the pursuit of
worldly pleasures and the practice of useless austerities. The
following is the exposition of the eight requirements of the
noble path :
1. Right Belief', belief in the four noble truths.
2. Right Resolve : to renounce sensual pleasures, to have malice to-
wards none, and to harm no living creature.
3. Right Speech : abstinence from falsehood, backbiting, harsh language,
and frivolous talk.
' Warren, BT, 380.
• From Digha-Nikdya, 22, as translated in Warren, BT, 368-73.
64 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
4. Right Behaviour \ abstinence from destroying life, from taking that
which is not given, and from immorality.
5. Ri^ht Occupation : quitting a wrong occupation and getting one's
livelihood by a right occupation,
6. Right Effort : the purpose, effort, endeavour, and exertion to avoid
and abandon evil qualities, and to produce, preserve, develop, and
make perfect meritorious qualities.
7. Right Watchfulness : strenuous, conscious, unsleeping watchfulness,
as regards sensations, the mind, and the elements of being, so as
to rid oneself of lust and grief and remain free.
8. Right Concentration : the progressive practice of hypnotic trances
through reasoning, reflection, contemplation, tranquillization, in-
tense thinking, and the abandonment of misery and of happiness J
The path may be summed up as faith in the Buddha's
teaching, vigorous intellectual effort to understand it and to
apply it to life in detail, and an earnest moral life accompanied
with regular meditation and the practice of hypnotic trances.
§61. Thus far we may be sure of our ground, but a.s soon
as we ask what the Buddha taught about the nature of the
world and man, and what happens in release, we find ourselves
in difficulties, since it is impossible to make certain that the
Sutta Pitaka, which did not take final form until more than
two centuries after his death, really represents his teaching.
The prevailing doctrine in the Canon is that everything in the
world is transitory, evil, and lacking in an ego,^ and therefore
that man has no soul. But if man has no soul, it would seem
to be fair to conclude at once that there can be no rebirth,
and further that, even if some shadowy form of continuity can
be conceived which might make it possible to believe in trans-
migration, final release in these circumstances can only be final
annihilation. The Canon is by no means consistent in its
doctrine. Transmigration is certainly everywhere taught, but,
while the existence of a self or immortal spirit is usually
denied, there are passages where the soul is said to exist.
Then, although in a few places release is said to be annihila-
tion pure and simple, that is not the prevalent doctrine.
^ From Digha-Nikaya, 22. Abbreviated from Warren, BT. 373-4.
^ These three epithets are in a sense the watchwords of Buddhism.
In Ceylon the monk, as he goes his rounds, may be heard muttering,
anichchhuy dukha, anatta.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 65
Modern scholars have differed greatly in their reconstruction
of the Buddha's teaching. The latest exposition, which is by
Professor Poussin,^ strives to do complete justice to all the
evidence. He is inclined to believe that Gautama did deny
the existence of a soul or permanent entity in man, but he
believes he predicated the existence of a sort of substitute for
a soul which may be reasonably conceived as a possible basis
for transmigration. It is almost impossible to express the
idea accurately and clearly in a sentence, but perhaps the fol-
lowing may suggest it. The exposition runs that in our
psychical life there exists only the stream of consciousness,
with its partial continuity, its imperfect identity, its continuous
change ; and it is.this phenomenal thing that transmigrates,
a something which is so changeable as to be no basis for the
belief in a permanent soul, and yet has sufficient continuity to
make it possible to speak of the individual as transmigrating.
Thus man is altogether phenomenal, a composite of fleeting
elements, yet rebirth takes place. But, if this is all that trans-
migrates, must we not conclude that, when transmigration
does not take place, the man is annihilated ? That seems to
be the only possible conclusion. But the Buddha did not
usually speak of deliverance as annihilation. In his teaching
he eschewed, as far as possible, metaphysical questions as of
no practical utility, and, indeed, as obstructions in the path
towards the ideal. Hence nirvana is usually called complete
deliverance, and no description or definition of the state is
added. Such is Professor Poussin's reconstruction of the
history. It would, perhaps, be still better to suppose that
the Buddha denied the existence of the soul while he affirmed
transmigration and deliverance, and that he refused to enter
into any philosophic justification of these positions.
§6a. Buddhist tradition unanimously declares that a few
weeks after the death of the master a great Council was held
at Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha, and that there the rules
for the monastic life, and also the discourses of the Buddha as
1 JVN, 34.
F
66 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
contained in the Sutta Pitaka were rehearsed. All critical
scholars agree that the story is unhistorical, and that the
growth of the Canon is posterior to the death of the Buddha ;
but it is quite possible that the disciples assembled after the
death of the founder to come to some agreement concerning
the principal points of the creed and of the discipline.
Very little is known about the history of the faith or of the
community during the next two hundred years. Clearly the
movement spread ; the literature gradually took shape ; and
differences of opinion on matters of both faith and practice
arose among the monks ; but it is not possible to give any
comprehensible outline of the events of those years. A tradi-
tion is found in the Canon that, one hundred years after the
death of the Buddha, a second Council was held at Vaisali, to
examine and condemn ten illegitimate practices which the
monks of that town claimed to have the right to follow, and
a much later tradition declares that the Vinaya and Sutta
Pitakas of the Canon were recited here also. Scholars are ready
to believe that a Council was held to discuss certain points
of discipline and other questions, but the date remains quite
uncertain, and the statements about the Canon are unhistorical.
^6^, About two hundred years after the Buddha's death,
however, light begins to fall on the history. Alexander's
raid into the Punjab led to a revolution and change of dynasty
in Magadha and to the establishment, under Chandragupta, of
the first empire ever known in India. The grandson of Chandra-
gupta, the founder of the Maurya empire, was A^oka, one of
the most remarkable monarchs the world has seen. He seems
to have reigned from 273 to 232 B.C. A few years after he
became emperor he added Orissa by conquest to his empire.
According to his own account, the slaughter and misery which
the conquest occasioned caused him such acute distress and
repentance that he became a Buddhist and decided to wage
no more war. Many scholars believe that at a later date he
actually became a monk, at least for a short time.
The conversion of A^oka made the fortune of Buddhism ;
i
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 67
for, being a man of conviction and energy, he set about using
the wealth, authority, and influence of his great position for the
spread of the religion which he had adopted. He spent vast
sums from the imperial revenue in erecting Buddhist build-
ings. The use of stone for architecture and sculpture seems to
have begun in India about this time. Consequently, the
earliest stone buildings erected on the soil of India dowered
the Buddhist faith with a magnificent series of artistic monas-
teries, temples, and relic-mounds. He sent out monks as
missionaries of the faith throughout the length and breadth of
India, and also to Ceylon, to Burmah, to the Himalayas, to
Afghanistan, and beyond. Great success followed both within
and without the bounds of the empire. Ceylon became
a Buddhist country, and along the southern slopes, of the
Himalayas, in Kashmir, and in eastern Afghanistan the faith
took firm root. The emperor also prepared simple sermons
for his people and had them cut on rocks by the side of pilgrim
and trade routes, or on monumental pillars setup in prominent
places, so that he might preach to the millions of his subjects
and his neighbours. Laws were made to compel men to live
in closer accord with the Buddhist ideal ; and Government
officials were required to help the imperial propaganda in the
ordinary course of their duties.
§ 64. Tradition runs that a Council held at Patna during his
reign for the settlement of several questions of faith and
discipline, accepted the Tipitaka (Sansk. Tripitaka), the
Buddhist Canon in three baskets, Pitaka^ or divisions, as under :
1. The Viiiaya^ or Discipline Basket, containing the rules
for the life of monks and nuns.
2. The Stitta^ or Sermon Basket, consisting in the main of
dialogues and sermons.
3. The Abhidhamma, or Teaching Basket, containing chiefly
manuals for the training of monks and nuns.
Is the tradition credible?
The following facts must be recognized. In the third
century <B.C., the Canon existed only in the memories of the
F 2
68 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
monks and nuns; and it must have been in Magadhi, the
vernacular of Magadha and of the imperial capital, Patna. No
portion of this original MagadhT Canon survives, but the
Ceylonese Canon, from which European scholars obtained
their knowledge of early Buddhism, purports to be the
identical books accepted at the Council. The language,
however, is Pdli^ a literary tongue which is believed to have
been developed at a later date from several vernaculars, but
especially from Magadhij and which was used by Ceylonese
Buddhists for the literature of their faith alone. The Pali
Canon was reduced to writing in Ceylon in the first century
B.C.; and in the later history it is but the Canon of the
Vibhajjavadin school of Ceylon, and of others dependent on it.
It is practically certain that this Pali Canon and the later
Sanskrit Canons of North India were derived independently
from the Magadhi original.
As to the relation of the Pali Canon to the texts of the
third century B.C., the position of advanced scholarship is
probably best represented by Poussin, who, while acknow-
ledging that the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas which we possess
are on the whole very much the same as the early Magadhi
texts, yet holds that numerous changes were probably intro-
duced in the time of oral transmission and in the process of
translation into Pali ; and roundly declares that * the apostolic
or conciliar origin of the Abhidharma ^ is a pious fraud \^ He
points out that, while all the schools acknowledged a Canon
in two parts, the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas, only two schools,
namely the Vibhajjavadins of Ceylon, who used Pali, and the
Sai-vastivadins, who probably belonged to Kashmir, and used
Sanskrit, possessed an Abhidhamma Pitaka, and the two
collections are wholly independent. Consequently, we can
recognize only the Vinaya and the Sutta Pitakas as belonging
to this period.
Further, if a General Council had been held in Patna, it
could have been held only with Asoka*s permission and
* Abhidhamma in Pali. * Opinions^ 44.
J
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 69
co-operation ; and it would then almost certainly have been
mentioned in his inscriptions. His silence thus suggests
a serious doubt about the whole tradition.
§ 65. The central source of the Vinaya is the Pdtimokkha.
Twice every month the monks of every district met in solemn
assembly, and the 227 articles of this Confession were recited
aloud one by one, the reciter asking after the repetition of
each rule whether any monk had been guilty of any trans-
gression. The Confession with its Commentary forms the
first book of the Vinaya, the Sutta Vibhahga. The second
part is the Khandakas, the treatises, i. e. the Mahdvagga and
the Chullavagga^ which give rules for every part of the life of
the monk and the nun. In both these parts of the Vinaya
there are numerous stories and tales which are of extreme
interest for the life of the Buddha and the early history of the
Order. The third part, the Parivdra^ is a scholastic list of
subjects of little interest, probably a late addition to the Canon.
§ 66. The Sutta Pitaka is of far greater interest. Here one
enters into the life of ancient India and makes friends with
people of every type, enjoying the simplicity, the humour, the
kindliness of the peasant, listening to teaching of every sect,
reverent and coarse, wise and foolish, new and old. Here we
see religion in the process of being made and unmade. Every-
where walks the Buddha, supreme in his humanity, his fine
gentlemanliness, his caustic wit, his quiet reasonableness, his
radiant personality, winning his way among all classes of men
by the moderation of his teaching and discipline, his feeling
for human need, and his firm conviction that he has actually
stormed the citadel of truth. The contents of this Pitaka fall
into five main groups.
I. The most attractive and most valuable of all the groups
consists of dialogues and sermons. Nearly all are said to
come from the Buddha himself, but a few are attributed to his
immediate disciples. Each has a brief introduction, telling
where and in what circumstances tradition said it had been
uttered. These beautiful pieces of literature are to be found
70 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
mainly in the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas, but many frag-
ments are scattered throughout the other collections. A number
of dialogues are so full of the power and simplicity of genius
that we can readily believe that they reflect with great faith-
fulness the teaching of the Master ; many of the great phrases
which form the basis of the teaching also unquestionably come
from him ; and probably also some of the brief poems which
glow like gems amid the more sober prose ; but a very large
number of the pieces are clearly of later origin, created at
various times to meet the needs of the Order or of the lay
community.
II. The next group centres in the Buddha. There is no
life of the Master in the Canon, but there are many bio-
graphical passages in both the Vinaya and the Sutta Pitakas,^
which were later combined to form biographies of the Buddha
in Ceylon and India. In these narratives he is sometimes
regarded as purely human, only exalted to wondrous powers
by his enlightenment, but in many places he is spoken of as
a demigod, and in others he is raised far above all the gods.
The doctrine of karma and rebirth leads to the belief that he
was gradually prepared for his final enlightenment in his
previous births. Hence in the Book of Lives, the Jdtaka, we
have 550 mythical narratives of previous lives, and in the
Chariydpitaka 35 more, all set out as edifying stories for the
Buddhist reader, a literature of extraordinary variety and
interest. Further, since truth does not change, Buddhists
began to believe that in the earlier ages the same teaching
must have been proclaimed by other Buddhas. The outcome
of this was a long series of Previous Buddhas. At first there
were only three, then six, then twenty-four, then twenty-seven ;
but finally they became innumerable.^ They are parallel
* The Mahavagga in the Vinaya Pitaka; the Mahdparinibbdna and
Mahdpaddna suttas of the Dlgha Nikaya; suttas 26, 36, 123 of the
Majjhima Nikaya; and the Dhammachakkappcnjattana sutta of the
Samyutta Nikaya.
' Mahdpaddna Sutta \ Buddhavamsa ; Niddnakathd \ Lalita Vistara :
Waddell in JRAS. 1914, 677.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 71
with the Jain Tirthakaras and the incarnations of Vishnu and
of Siva.
III. The third group consists of short religious poems^
ejaculations, epigrams, psalms. The habit of giving expression
in verse to the loftier moods of the monastic life seems to have
begun with the Buddha himself, and was cultivated with very
great success by many generations of pious monks and nuns.
There are four collections of these poems, the Dhammapada^
the Uddna^ the Thera Gdthd^ dind the Thert Gdthdy but,
besides these, numerous examples are scattered throughout
the Canon.
IV. The fourth group consists of edifying narratives and
ballads, which vary very much in literary and didactic
worth. They seem to have been exceedingly popular among
the Buddhist laity, but for us they have their chief interest as
stores of folk-lore. In the Mahdvagga, the suttas of the
Majjhima Nikaya, the Apaddna"^ and also in th^ Jdtaka-hook
are numerous tales, and in the Samyutta Nikaya and the
Sutta Nipdta many stories in verse and ancient ballads.
V. The fifth group consists of magic texts, charms against
snakes, evil spirits, demons, &c. The Khuddakapdtha and the
3and sutta of the Digha Nikaya consist of texts of this type.
The early Buddhist church was, essentially, the double
monastic order, yet there was a large laity also. The duties
laid on them were, in the main, attention to the teaching of
the Buddha, a really good moral life, the practice of ahimsd,
Le. non-injury to animals, and liberality to the monks and
nuns. But from a very early date reverence for the Buddha
and his chief followers led to the beginnings of a cult.^
Each stupa, erected over relics of the Buddha or of a noted
preacher, became a place of pilgrimage and adoration. The
hall in which the laity heard instruction from the monks had
* The word Apadana, Sanskrit Avadana, means a heroic deed, and is
used of stones about Buddhist saints. This collection is in verse.
' The Buddha's attitude to Hindu priests and their sacrifices was so
scornful that we may be certain that he established no ritual cultus among
his disciples.
72 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
a stupa set up in it to stir devotional feeling, and many
symbols of Buddhist faith and practice received fervent adora-
tion. In the time of A^oka each great stupa and chaitya
became a splendid work of art ; and music, shows, and pro-
cessions were added to earlier observances ; so that Buddhist
worship began to rival the spectacular attractions of Hindu
temple- worship and sacrifice.
§ 67. The Edicts of A^oka form one of the most interesting
of all Buddhist documents. They may be most conveniently
studied in Dr. Vincent Smith's Asoka. The great Buddhist
Mission carried to so much success during his reign is described
in them from the point of view of the Emperor who organized
and supported it, while the Chronicles of Ceylon describe it
from the standpoint of the monastic community who provided
the missionaries. The edicts show the extreme interest which
the Emperor took in the expansion of the religion, not only
among Hindus but also amongst the jungle-folk of India and
foreign nations. They also enable us to see that he made
large use of the imperial officials in order to spread amongst
the people a knowledge of Buddhism, of the Emperor's faith
in the religion, and of his desire that it should be widely
adopted. One inscription names seven passages in the Canon
which he recommends for study, his favourhe texts. He lays
very great stress on the virtue of saving animal life, and tells
how he has restricted animal sacrifice by law and also the
slaughter of animals for food. He was almost a vegetarian
himself. Instead of the royal hunt, his Majesty now under-
took religious tours to visit religious men and sacred places.
One edict gives orders that monks or nuns who seek to create
schism in the Buddhist church shall be unfrocked. This was
probably published immediately after the Council at Patna,
if such a council was held. An inscribed pillar also informs
us that the Emperor had enlarged for the second time the
Stupa of Kanakamuni, one of the previous Buddhas.
Very little distinctive Buddhist teaching occurs in these
edicts, except the insistence on the sacredness of animal life.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 73
It IS peculiarly noticeable that there is no single mention of
karma and transmigration in them, and not the slightest
allusion to nirvana. Since the Arthaiastra shows the same
features, we are probably justified in concluding that karma
and rebirth had not as yet laid serious hold of the common
people in eastern India. The Emperor urges all nien to
practise the law of piety, first because of the good results
which it produces in this world, but above all things because
such conduct creates merit, and secures the other world for
the pious man. Ordinary morality stands in the foreground,
reverence to parents, relatives, teachers, and all religious men,
proper treatment of slaves and servants, truth-speaking,
liberality, gentleness to all living creatures. Similarly, tolera-
tion of all creeds, and liberality to ascetics and teachers of all
denominations, are repeatedly recommended. The edicts
thus contain scarcely anything which Brahmans would not
approve. Yet the prohibition of animal sacrifice must have
been deeply resented.
D. The Jain School.
§68. For many years European scholars believed that
Jainism was a schism or branch-system derived from Buddhism,
but research has made it clear that the two are independent and
that Jainism is the earlier of the two. Mahavira, who was
a contemporary of the Buddha,^ belonged to a Kshatriya
family of good position, and was born in a town a little to the
north of the site of Patna. He became a sannyasi of an
ascetic order which had been founded by a man named Parj^va,
and developed it into the sect of the Jains, The canonical
literature of the sect was not reduced to writing until nearly
a thousand years after Mahavlra's death, and it is as yet
impossible to say whether any parts of it come from this
period or not ; so that it requires much caution to work back
' There is much uncertainty about his actual date. Jains themselves
give two dates for his death, 527 and 467 B.C., while Buddhist texts
represent him as a contemporary of the Buddha, and place his death a few
years before the Buddha's nirvana.
74 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
even to a bare outline of the founder's faith and discipline.
A few features of the system, however, stand out with such
distinctness that we should almost be justified in accepting
them as primary without further evidence ; statements found
in early Buddhist books about the founder, his sect, and his
teaching corroborate the Jain evidence very clearly on a number
of points ; and the relation between early Hinduism and early
Hindu asceticism, on the one hand, and Jain beliefs and ascetic
rules, on the other,^ is so patent that we need not hesitate to
accept the chief lines of the tradition as historical. These are
the original atheism of the system, and the beliefs, that there
are souls in every particle of earth, air, water, and fire, as well
as in men, animals, and plants, and that, for the attainment of
release, the practice of certain very severe austerities, tapaSy
the strictest abstinence from the destruction of life in any form,
and the keeping of a number of moral rules are necessary.
Monks and nuns had to pluck their own hair out by the roots,
and were not allowed to drink cold water nor to bathe. After
twelve years of rigorous austerities they were encouraged to
commit suicide by self-starvation, if they chose to do so. The
system is more closely allied to animism, hylozoism, and early
ascetic practice than any other belonging to the period. The
severe austerities and the rule of ahimsd^ non-injury to both
vegetable and animal life, both come from the discipline of the
Vanaprasthas.2 Mahavira organized the laymen and the lay-
women of the community as well as the monks and the nuns.
Only ascetics could hope to win release at once, but a faithful
lay-life prepared the soul for becoming an ascetic in a future
life. On the laity were laid simple moral rules and easy
austerities, and it was their special duty to support the monks
and the nuns. Mahavira did his work in the vernacular, and
the Canon is in an old vernacular to this day. Amongst
the many titles conferred on him,yi'«^, conqueror, was one of
the most prominent. Hence his followers are called Jaina^
Jains.
^ Jacobi, SBE, XXII. x; xxii ff. ; ERE, VII. 465. « See § 30.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 75
We may be certain that Jain worship arose in much the
same way in which the Buddhist cult developed ; for at later
dates the two are absolutely parallel.^
§ 69. Of the history of Jainism during these centuries we '
know very little. There seems, however, to be reason to
believe that from an early date a distinction tended to arise
among the monks of the community, which finally led in the
first century A. D. to a great schism. The question at issue
was whether the monks should wear white robes or discard
all clothing. This division of opinion disturbed the early life
of the community in some degree. When the schism actually
came, the Jains fell into two sects, the Svetambara or White-
clothed, and the Digambara or Sky-clothed, i. e. naked, and
the division remains to-day.
The Jains have a tradition that Chandragupta, the founder
of the Maurya Empire, was a Jain, that a famine broke out
in Magadha during his reign, and that thereupon he abdicated
his throne and went south with a great company of Jains
under the leadership of Bhadrabahu to Sravana Belgola in
the Mysore country, where he became a monk and finally
died by self-starvation. If the story is true, the date of the
migration would be about 5^98 B. c. ; for his son Bindusara
succeeded to the throne about that date ; but, as its earliest
attestation is an inscription at Sravana Belgola of rather
a late date, scholars are very much divided with regard to its
trustworthiness.*^
§ 70. Tradition also says that, towards the end of the
twelve years of famine, the sacred books were collected
in a council of monks held at Patna, under the presidency
of Sthulabhadra. They are said to have been twelve
in number and to have been called * Ahga ', i. e. * limbs ',
members of the body of scripture. The last Ahga con-
sisted of fourteen books which contained the utterances of
Mahavira himself, while the first eleven were composed by
his followers. Bhadrabahu, who is said to have led the
' See § 121 and § 123. « V. Smith, EHL 146.
76 TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE
migration to the south, is believed to have been the author
of three of the canonical books and of niryuktisy i. e. brief
comments, on ten of them. The last Ahga is irretrievably
lost; but the Svetambaras declare that the eleven Ahga,
which form the first division of their Canon to-day, are the
identical books collected at the Council. The Digambaras,
on the other hand, who confess that they no longer possess
the original Canon, deny that the eleven Svetambara Ahga
are genuine. All modern scholars acknowledge that there
are many archaic elements in these Svetambara books, and in
particular that the accounts of Mahavira, the early community
and its beliefs and practices, which we have already dealt
with, are in the main at least historical. It thus seems to be
clear that parts of the existing Ahga must have been handed
down orally with considerable fidelity for a thousand years ;
for they were not reduced to writing until about A. D. 500.
The problem set by the Ahga is of a very complicated
character. Their language is not the original MagadhI, in
which works recited and arranged at Patna in the third century
B. c. must have been composed, but a later dialect akin in
some respects to MagadhI, but modified under the influence
of the speech of the west of India, where the work of codifi-
cation and writing was carried out about A. D. 500.^ Further,
there are clear proofs that they have undergone extensive
alteration since then. Critical study has not yet gone far
enough to make the solution of this most intricate problem
possiblel Thus, while it is probably true that a number of
books were collected and recognized at Patna, no one can yet
say what precise relation the canonical books bear to those
original works. Weber holds that the existing books were
formed between the second and the fifth centuries A. D., but
Jacobi is inclined to think that parts of them may have come
down from the Patna Council comparatively little changed.*
* See below, § 181.
' Weber in lA. XVII. 289, 342; XX. 24; Jacobi, Kalpa-sutray
Intro., SBE, XLV, p. xlj Keith, //?^ 5. 1915, 551.
TRANSMIGRATION AND RELEASE 77
There is certainly no body of Jain literature belonging to this
period to place beside the Buddhist Tripitaka,
§ 71. That the Jains were an important body in the time of
the Maurya emperors is perfectly clear from the way in which
A^oka refers to them in one of his edicts.^ The community
have also a tradition that a grandson of Ai^oka named
Samprati reigned after him, and treated the Jain community
with as much favour and munificence as his grandfather had
shown to the Buddhists ; but Samprati himself and the whole
story are not known from any other source;^ so that the
truth of the narrative is extremely doubtful.
* Pillar_ Edict VII, in V. Smith's ^j^^df, 193. But Hoernle's theory,
that the Ajlvikas, who are mentioned in the same edict and who received
costly caves from Asoka and his grandson, were Digambara Jains {ERE,
I. 259), is probably erroneous (Bhandarkar, lA. XLI. 286).
' V. Smith, EHI, 192-3, 440.
CHAPTER III
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
200 B.C. TO A. D. aoo.
§ 72. The Hindu movement towards theism shows two
distinct stages, and a corresponding though not identical
evolution within Buddhism takes place in two unfoldings also,
and also at the same times. Great political changes form the
background to those religious events.
^ Early in the second century B. c. the Mayrya empire fell. A
Hindu dynasty, the Sunga, took its place at the capital, Patna,
and doubtless annulled Ai^oka's laws against animal sacrifice ;
while on the now contracted western frontier crouched
Bactrian Greeks, Parthians, and Scythians, waiting to spring
at the central empire. Under the Hindu dynasty arose new
texts of the Rdmdyana and the Mahdbhdrata in which Rama
and Krishna walk the earth as divine incarnations. In
Buddhist works of the same period the Buddha appears as
a semi-divine being with new attributes.
The Scythian race called Kushans seized all the western
frontiers of India soon after the Christian era, and about the
middle of the century conquered the Hindu government at
Patna, and thus formed a vast empire stretching from Central
Asia to the Gangetic plain. Not long after these events, ay
it would seem, the Bhagavadgltd arose, in which Krishna is
represented as a full incarnation of Vishnu and as the eternal
Brahman of the Upanishads : Vaishnava theism was thus
formed ; and other sects hastened to follow the great example.
About the same time, or a little later, MahSyana Buddhism
was formed, in which the Buddha almost became an
eternal god.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 79
It seems cldar that the wealth and general culture of the
times created a strong and intelligent body of laymen, as
distinct from the monastic orders. Literature, philosophy,
and art all show great activity ; and both Hindus and
Buddhists found it necessary to modify their standards and
prepare fresh literature to meet the needs of the cultured
layman.
One of the greatest happenings of these centuries is the
spread of Buddhism to Persia, to Turkestan, and to China.
i. Hinduism.
A. TAe Twice-born and their Literature.
§ 73. No addition of any importance seems to have been
made during this period to the literature of the Vedic schools
except a number of new Upanishads. The sacrificial discipline
of each school still consisted of Mantra, Brahmana, and Sutra,
with probably the further help of the Karma Mimamsa
system, while the Aranyaka and the Upanishad formed
special courses. The Upanishads which made their appear-
ance during the period fall into two classes, of which only
the first attach themselves quite naturally to the original
Vedanta texts. Of these there are three, the Prasna^
Maitrdyana^ and Mdndukya, the Maitrdyana belonging to the
Black YajuSy the other two to the Atharvaveda,
§ 74. It seems to be clear also that already about the
middle of our period, there existed a work which summed
up the teaching of the Upanishads, and was thus a forerunner
of the famous but far later Brahma-sutra of Badarayana.
That at least seems to be the natural inference from the
reference in the Bkagavadgttd ^ to Brahmasutras and from the
occurrence of the descriptive phrase sarvopanishadvidyd^\,t,^\hQ
science of all the Upanishads', in the nearly contemporary
Maitrdyanq, Upanishad?' It is most likely that it was the
example of the Karma-mimamsa, which undertakes to unify
^ XIII. 4. * 11. 3.
8o THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
and sum up the teaching on sacrifice, that led to the exposition
of all Upanishad texts in similar fashion. The ancient Karma-
Mlmamsa text of those days and also the original Upanishad
manual were early lost, eclipsed by the classical documents of
the next period.
§ 75. Thus far we have dealt with the legitimate literature of
the-Vedic schools. The second class of Upanishads have not
the same standing. They fall into three groups, each related
to a special type of ascetic, but all diverging in some degree
from the original Vedanta texts. These are the Sannyasa,
Yoga, and Saiva Upanishads. All were finally attached to
the Atharvaveduy but in rather irregular fashion.
§ 76. It is clear that from some early date in the period
there existed a document belonging to the Sankhya philo-
sophy. It is also probable that, besides the Yoga Upanishads
already mentioned, an orderly exposition, of the Yoga system
existed. The Vai^eshika, the Nyaya, and the Charvaka
systems must have each had a fundamental text But these
five all stood outside the Vedic schools and were regarded as
more or less aberrant. The growth of the epic, which is
discussed below, affords an opportunity of setting these works
in historical connexion with the rest of the literature.
§ 77. The incre^ingly complicated curriculum taught in
each Vedic school rendered it impossible for the student to
master all the subjects taught ; and the fesult was that
schools for the study of special subjects, such as grammar,
law, and politics, were established. The law schools are of
especial interest, as their labours were of large practical value
for the twice-born layman. Their method seems to have
been to take the Dharma-sutra of some Vedic school and
modify it in some degree, so as to make it suitable not for
members of that school alone, but for all twice-born men.
The Dharma-sutras of Gautama and of Vasishtha, already
included in our study of dharma in our last chapter, seem
to have undergone this process.
§ 78. But verse was the medium for popular literature
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 8i
during this period, and many of the old laws in their sutra-
form were ambiguous. Hence in the schools it became
customary to express the old sutras in slokas. The most
famous of all Indian law-books, the code of Manu, is a work
of this kind, and took shape during the period. It is probable
that it was founded on the Dharma-sutra of the Manavans,
one of the sutra-schools of the Black Yajurveda, The time
of the creative activity of the Manava law-school seems to
have been contemporary with the gradual growth of the
didactic epic. About the time when this latter was com-
pleted, or rather later, thie labours of the school culminated
in a great law-book in verse, the text of which thereafter
underwent very little change.^ Law-books in verse, in con-
tradistinction to the older treatises in prose sutras, are called
^astras. Hence, the full name of the text is the Manava
Dharmasdstra^ popularly known, as the law of Manu, and
usually said to be fabulously old. It is to be noted that this
law-book and others of the same class were meant for the
twice-born only. They are of special interest here because
of their importance for the twice- born householder.
This great code registers several advances in Hindu religious
law. Here, and also in the contemporary didactic Epic, the
ideal is laid down, though it is not made compulsory, that
the twice-born man should pass through the four diramas
in order, i. e. the life of the celibate student, the householder,
the hermit, and the monk. No widow, not even a virgin
child-widow, may remarry : her duty is to live an ascetic life.
The twice-born may still eat flesh, but there are many
restrictions.
^ § 79. During this period there arose among twice-bom
householders a religious distinction which was destined to
last throughout 'the history of the religion. As we shall see
in our study of the Epic, there was a group of the twice-
born on whom the worship of Vishnu by temple and image
had laid hold with such force that they tended to refuse to
^ Hopkins, GE. 19.
G
8a THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
recognize the other gods of the pantheon. Another group
stood in a similar relation to Siva.^ Now the ritual of temple-
worship had not sprung from Vedic sources, but apparently
from ancient forms of worship traditional among Sudras.^
It was thus inevitable that those who remained loyal to the
ancient sacrificial worship should condemn the exclusive cult
of Vishnu and of Siva as doubly heterodox, because its
ritual was not Vedic, and because it did not worship all the
gods.^ Doubtless, there were many among the orthodox even
at this early date who had a god whom they specially favoured ;
yet this did not affect their orthodoxy, for they freely acknow-
ledged all the others.
From this time, therefore, we must recognize among the
twice-born the orthodox^ who are faithful to the Vedic pantheon
and ritual, and the sectarians^ who exalt one god to the neglect
of the rest, and in his cult use a ritual and liturgy of non-Vedic
origin. The position of the sects was greatly strengthened
by the appearance of the Bhagavadgttd^ which provided the
Vaishnava with a theology, and led to the formation of a
similar system for the worshipper of Siva. These devoted
sectarians still kept up the Vedic forms of worship in their
domestic ceremonies, and observed the rules of caste with
great strictness. Indeed, throughout their history they have
sought to prove themselves orthodox Hindus, and in some
cases with considerable success.
§ 80. It is probable that the mass of Sudras belonged to no
sect, but worshipped now one god, now another. That cer-
tainly has been the position of the mass of the Hindu people
for many centuries. Doubtless there would be a certain
number of intelligent Sudras who would share the strictly
sectarian position with their twice-born brethren, just as there
is to-day, but they would scarcely be regarded as heterodox,
since they were not allowed to perform the ancient sacrifices.
^ Patanjali calls them l^ivabhagavatas, devotees of l^iva, and speaks of
the stress they lay on the worship of images : Mahabhashya on P.V. ii. *](>,
» See § 51. 8 chanda, lAR. 99. * See § Ze.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 83
B. The Epics.
§81. The movement towards theism within Hinduism has
the ancient god Vishnu for its centre. Two stages are very
distinctly visible in the movement, and both are reflected in
the growth of the epic poems.
The original heroic poem called the Mahdbhdrata^ which
celebrated the fall of the Kuru family through the wiles of
the Pandus directed by Krishna, underwent considerable
transformation and enlargement. The leading feature of the
epic- in this, its second stage, is that the Pandus are now
regarded as the heroes of the epic, and, unlike former kings,
they are represented as emperors ruling the whole of India.
We also find mention in the poem of Yavanas, Pahlavas, and
Sakas, i.e. Greeks, Parthians, and Scythians. The mythical
Pandu empire is probably a reflection of the Maurya empire,
while the mention of Greeks, Parthians, and Scythians would
seem to point definitely to the time of the Sungas. According
to the statement of the epic itself, the poem consisted of
24,000 stanzas ^ at this stage, and modern scholars estimate
that the epic kernel of the whole work runs to about ao,ooo
stanzas.2
We now turn for a moment to the Rdmdyana. The five
books of Valmiki's original work are to-day preceded by one
book and followed by another which are clearly of later date.
Here also we meet with Yavanas, Pahlavas, and Sakas ; so
that these additions cannot be dated earlier than the Pandu
form of the great epic.^
§ 8a. The religious phenomena of both epics are also
significant. In the new parts of both, the religion is still
polytheistic and sacrificial, but the prominent divinities are
now Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. It seems as if in the popular
mind the three stood on an equality.* Still more noteworthy
is the fact that Krishna and Rama, the heroes of the -two
» I. i. 81 ; loi ; 105. 2 Hopkins, ERE. VIII. 325 a.
' Jacobi, R, 28 f . ; 50 ; 64 ; Macdonell, SL, 304 f.
* For the old religion at this stage, apart from the incarnation doctrine,
see Hopkins, RL ch. xix.
G 5J
84 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
epics, are now represented as partial incarnations of Vishnu,^
while ancient deeds of divine might have been transferred
from Indra and other old gods to Vishnu.^ In these facts we
have the first clear indication in Indian literature of the rise
of something like an organized sect within Hinduism. Vishnu
has now a group of worshippers who exalt him to a place of
special honour, and this group has been able to seize and
claim for itself the heroes of both the popular poems. A
distinct polemic against Buddhism may also be traced in the
new form of the Mahdbhdrata.
§ 83. These facts seem to point to the conclusion that the
transformation of both poems took place after the fall of the
Maurya empire. It is scarcely likely that a large work
glorifying Hindu kings, and describing a triumphant Hindu
empire, would have made its appearance under Buddhist
emperors, far less that they would have tolerated direct
attacks on Buddhism ; while the publication of the ancient
poems in these new and most attractive forms would be quite
natural under the patronage of a Hindu monarch who had
restored old liberties and re-established the sacrificial
ceremonial.^
The two epics thus became religious works, glorifying the
god Vishnu ; and ever since that time they have been regarded
as Vaishnava scriptures. But Vishnu was not yet elevated to
the position of the Supreme. A perusal of the first book of
the Rdmdyana will show that, while his followers praised
him as the best of the gods, they still thought of him as one
of the old divinities, a being similar in nature to Siva, Brahma,
and the rest. This is but the first stage of the movement
towards theism.
§ 84. We do not know how the Vaishnavas were led to
' Macdonell, SL. 286, 305 ; Ramayanay I. xix.
' Holtzmann, il/^//. I. 10. The dwarf, Vamana, is in the Rdmayana
said to be an incarnation of Vishnu, I. xxxi.
' Hopkins, GE. 399. Inscriptions belonging to the second and first
centuries B. c, which mention Vasudeva, i. e. Krishna, fit in well with this
conception. Bhandarkar, VS. 3-4.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 85
develop the doctrine of divine incarnation. The idea appears
suddenly in the literature, and there is nothing in earlier
Hindu thought that would seem to be a natural and sufficient
source of the conception.^ It may be that they were led to
it by the example of the Buddhists, who, as we have seen,
had already raised Buddha to divine powers and honours,
and had created a series of precedent Buddhas stretching
away into the distant past. So Krishna and Rama with the
Dwarf are now conceived as divine, and they already form
a short series ; for Rama is held to have appeared at a much
earlier date than Krishna, and the Dwarf precedes Rama.
§ 85. We now pass to the consideration of the second stage
of the movement toward theism, as reflected in the epics.
Scholars believe that, during the first and second centuries of
the. Christian era, the large masses of didactic matter * which
are found in certain sections of the Mahdbhdrata as it stands
were added to the epic of 24,000 stanzas which we have
just discussed. This fresh material consists in the main
of discourses on Religion, Philosophy, Politics, and Law.^
Books XII and XIII of the epic, as we have it to-day, consist
almost entirely of this material, and masses of it are found
also in Books III, V, VI, XI, and XIV. These numerous
pieces of teaching are clearly of various date and authorship,
and their critical study has not yet proceeded far enough to
enable us to arrange them in chronological order ; yet certain
differences in date stand out quite clear. This whole mass of
new material is usually called the didactic epic,* to distinguish
it from the real epic and the episodes. Scholars believe that
it arose in the eastern section of North India.^
^ Yet the idea that a god may temporarily take the form of an animal
or a man was clearly present in early Hindu minds ; for in the Brahmanas
there occur the stories of the fish and the dwarf. These tales may have
helped in the evolution of the new conception. Indeed the Dwarf became
one of the recognized avataras of Vishnu.
2 Hopkins, GE. 387; 398; ERE. VIII. 325 ff.
^ * The sacred law, the best manual of polity and a guide to salvation ',
is what the epic itself says, I. 62, 23.
* Hopkins also calls it the Pseudo-epic. ® Hopkins, GE. 78.
86 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
C. The Bhagavadgltd,
§ 86. The earliest, and also the greatest, of all the sections
that form the didactic epic is the far-famed Bhagavadgltd.
The date of this poem has caused endless discussion. Its
own statement is that it was uttered by Krishna and Arjuna
on the fateful field of Kurukshetra, just before the fighting
began ; and that is the Hindu tradition to this day. Mr.
Justice Telang believed that it belonged to the fourth century
B.C.,^ and Sir R. G. Bhandarkar argues in favour of the same
date,^ but most modern scholars recognize that, in its present
form, it can scarcely be earlier than the first or second century
A.D. What is perfectly clear is that it is later than the
fresh material of the second stage of the two epics, and
earlier than the rest of the documents of the didactic epic?
§ 87. The poem is a very remarkable one, and has had an
immeasurable influence on religion in India. There is i)o
other piece of literature that is so much admired and used by
thinking Hindus ; and it has won very high praise from many
Western thinkers and scholars. Numberless editions, in the
original and in translations in many tongues, fall from the
press. But it becomes still more remarkable and interesting
when one realizes its historical origin. It is the expression
of the earliest attempt made in India to rise to a theistic
faith and theology. In order to reach this ideal, the
Vaishnava sect identify their own god Vishnu, on the one
hand with the great Brahman-Atman of the Upanishads, and
on the other with Krishna, the hero of the Epic. There is a
double exaltation here. Until now Vishnu has been but one
of the gods of Hinduism, in nature indistinguishable from the
other members of the pantheon, though in the two centuries
before our era he held a high position among them beside
Brahma and Siva. Now he is declared to be the Absolute,
1 SBE.NlW.i^. 2 VS. 13.
' Holtzmann, MBH, II. 121 ; Hopkins, GE, 205, 225, 384, 402; Keitfa,
SS. 33, 34.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM ' 87
the One without a second, the source of all things and all
beings. Krishna, who had been recognized as a partial
incarnation of Vishnu in the second stage of the Epic, is
now declared to be a full incarnation of Vishnu-Brahman,
and receives the title Bhagavan, blessed Lord. Hence the
name of the poem, Bhagavadgitdy the Lord's Song. Each of
these changes is an advance towards theism. The identifi-
cation of Brahman with Vishnu distinctly suggests that the
Absolute is personal ; and the contention that the same
Brahman is fully represented by a being who walked the
earth in human form bodies forth the personal idea in the
most vivid way possible. The change is most revolutionary.
Let the student once more read some of the loftiest passages
^of the ancient Upanishads with the new thought in his mind.
§ 88. But the poem seeks not only to create a theism but to
bring a spiritual religion within the reach of all Vaishnavas.
The Upanishads had taught cultured Hindus to aim in their
religion not at rewards on earth or a sensuous heaven, but at
release from transmigration ; and Buddhism and Jainism had
attempted, in their heterodox way, to stimulate all classes to
the same high endeavour. The Gltd shows us the reconstitu-
tion of the Vaishnava sect under the pressure of these power-
ful movements. The precise limits within which this is done
must also be noticed. The Upanishads as taught in the
Vedic schools offered release only to the three highest castes,
for these holy texts might not be uttered in the hearing of
any but the twice-born ; Buddhism and Jainism, on the other
hand, offered release to all, to Outcastes and foreigners as
well as to Hindus of the four castes, and to women as well as
men ; but the Gltd takes a middle course, offering release to
all Hindus, i.e. to men and women of the four castes but to
no others. It is noticeable that these are precisely the bounds
of the sect ; all Hindus of the four castes were admitted to
Vaishnava, as to other Hindu, temples. But there is another
and still more revolutionary change. In all earlier systems
release was possible only for those who gave up the ordinary
88 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
life of man and became professional ascetics. In the Gttd
release is made available for the layman and his wife while
they maintain the household and take part in the business of
the world. These two radical changes necessitated a fresh
book : the Gttd was written to become the layman's Upani-
shad. It may also be said with truth that the Gttd is a
worthy successor to the old Upanishads.
§ 89. The Gttd sets forth three distinct ways in which
release may be won. The first is the JNANA MARGA,
or way of knowledge, as taught in the Upanishads and the
Sankhya philosophy, and in a modified way by Buddhism
and Jainism. The second is the KARMA MARGA, or way
of works. The earliest conception of religion in Hinduism
was a system of duties, summarized in the word dharma.'
The most prominent of these works in the early days were
the sacrifices ; but all the duties of caste and condition, of the
family and society, were also included. The Gttd doctrine of
works, which .is called Karma-yoga, is this, that the mere per-
forjpiance of the works ordained in Scripture wins only the
transient rewards on earth or in heaven that are promised for
them, but that the man who does these works without any
desire for the rewards will thereby win release. The word
Yoga is used in so many senses in the Gttd that it is hard to
decide which of them is implied in the phrase Karma-yoga,
but it probably comes from the radical meaning 'restraint*.
The third, BHAKTI-MARGA, the path of devotion, is a
new method of winning release. It is simply this: that
whole-hearted devotion to Krishna brings release from trans-
migration as effectively as philosophical knowledge or the
selfless performance of ordained duties.
The method of devotion is the link between the ancient
cult of the sect and the new teaching of the Gttd. For the
whole-hearted devotion which brings release finds its most
natural and most vivid expression in the regular worship of
Krishna in the temples of the sect.^ The cult would have
» Cf. IX. 6 with XL 46.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 89
a new dignity to thinking Vaishnavas, since it would hence-
forward be to them not a means merely to health, wealth,
and happiness, but also to the great spiritual end of the
emancipation of the soul from all the bonds of the phenomenal
universe.^ There is just one change in the cult to be noticed.
The Gttd recognizes no animal sacrifice. The offerings to
Krishna which it commends are purely vegetarian.^ Thus
we must conclude that, about the time when the new theology
came to the birth, animal sacrifice was given up in the chief
Vaishnava shrines. The rule is now universal among
Vishnuites.
§ 90. It is of great importance to notice that the Gttd calls
upon all Vaishnavas to keep the Hindu law as taught in the
Dharma^astras.^ The rules of caste,* the laws of the family,
and the regular worship of ancestors,* are all to be strictly
observed. It has been often said that the Gz^d is opposed
to caste^ but that is a complete mistake : the principles and
rules laid down in the poem are luminously clear.
§91. One of the most startling features of the poem is the
transformation of Krishna. In the genuine epic he is a king
and warrior, famous as a grim and powerful fighter, but
notorious above all things for his extraordinary cunning and
his dirty tricks : in the Gt^d he plays the philosophical guru,
quoting the Upanishads and praising the Sahkhya philosophy ;
from time to time he declares himself to be the supreme
Atman,* the source and support of the whole universe, the
object of all devotion and the recipient of all sacrifices ; and
again he displays his indescribable glory before the eyes of
his astonished friend.'^
§ 9a. The theology of the poem is a most imperfect theism.®
The idea of the writer seems to have been that he could form
> IX. 34; X. 10; XL 54; XII. 2. « IX. 26.
' XVI. 23; 24; XVII. I ; 5. For the Dharmasastras see § 78.
* 1.43; II. 31-33; 37; III. 23-6; 35; IV. 13; XVIII. 41-8.
* I. 40-44.
* X. 12, 20; VII. 6; 7; 10; IX. 8; 10; 13; XIV. 3; IX. 23-24.
' XI. 9-31. « Cf. Keith, //?^5. 1915, 548.
90 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
a new Vaishnava system by the mere juxtaposition of the
worship of Krishna and the great philosophies of his day, for
he does not attempt to modify and fit together these rather
incongruous elements so as to create from them a well-
articulated theology.
This is especially true with regard to the relation of the
Vedanta to the Sankhya. The latter system was clearly very
popular in those days.^ In contrast with the Upanishads, its
chief conceptions seem to have been chiselled and polished to
smoothness, and carefully fitted together in a system of
metaphysical and psychological ideas which any one could
readily understand. Further, in it the external world was
regarded as a reality, and the soul and its individuality were
frankly acknowledged. Thus, in spite of its atheism,^ these
Sankhya conceptions seemed to fit better into a theistic
theology than the monistic conceptions of the Upanishads.
The Yoga also was popular, but whether it had yet become
a theistic system is not known.
The author brought the three together, declared them
identical, and placed them beside Krishna, the incarnation of
Vishnu viewed as the Absolute. These divergent conceptions
are not fused into a higher unity but are superimposed, so
that the effect is like a composite photograph. Here and
there are theistic passages ; ^ from other sections a stark
pantheism stares out ; * and now and then the lines seem to
suggest an emanation theory and several gods.^ Nor is
anything done to lessen the gulf that yawns between the
actionless Brahman of the Upanishads and the incarnate god,
born to slay demons and to teach philosophy.®
§ 93« What unquestionably gives the Gttd its power is the
representation of the Supreme as incarnate and as teaching
* Hopkins, GE, 99 f.
' See GUa, XVI. 8, which certainly alludes to a nirtsvara system. So
Hopkins, GE, 105.
3 IV. 5-7; VI. 47; IX. 22-34; XI. 36-46; XII. 14-20; XVIII. 55-70.
* II. 72; IV. 24; V. 24-26.
* III. 15; VII. 30; VIII. 3-4; 20-21; XV. 16-18. « IV. 8.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 91
the loftiest philosophy of India to his friend Arjuna, so that
he and other simple laymen may find release. The portrait
of the incarnate One is drawn with great skill ; the situation
in which the teaching is given enforces certain of the lessons
taught with great vividness ; and the literary qualities of the
book are well worthy of the teaching it contains. The Bhaga-
vadgltd is a very great work.
§ 94. It is of importance to realize that, though the teaching
of the Gltd is now the very cream of orthodoxy, it was in
some respects heterodox when the poem was written. This
comes out most clearly in the section of the second book,^
where the Vedas are spoken of with some scorn, and in several
passages elsewhere in which the opponents of Krishna are
very vehemently criticized. The fact is that the poem sprang
from the young Vaishnava sect, the heterodox position of
which is explained above.^ At a later point an attempt will
be made to show how the Gltd came to be regarded as
orthodox.^
§ 95. The poem bears traces of having been rewritten,* but
two very different theories of its origin are held by scholars.
Accepting Bhandarkar s theory of the origin of the worship
of Krishna,^ Garbe ® attempts to explain the inconsistent theo-
logical teaching of the Gltd by the hypothesis that it was
originally written, early in the second century B.C., "^ on the
basis of the Sahkhya-Yoga system, as a theistic tract to glorify
Krishna, and that it was contaminated with the pantheism of
the Upanishads in the second century A.D. He analyses the
poem into what he believes to be these two sources, A few
scholars ® have accepted this theory, but most would probably
1 41-46. ' § 79. ' § 144.
* Hopkins, GE, 205, 234. • See above, § 50.
* Die Bhagavadgitdy Leipzig, 1905 ; also IC. 228 ff.
' This date is partly based on the belief that the Yoga^sutra was written
by the grammarian Fatanjali in the second century B.C., but since it
is now clear that the Yoga^sutra dates from the fourth century A.D.
(see below, § 139), the theory seems very improbable. See Keith,
SS, 30.
* Winternitz, I. 373; Grierson, ERE, II. 541 ; and Chanda, lAR, 98.
92 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
follow Hopkins and Keith ^ in saying that the analysis is
altogether unconvincing. It is much more likely that the
Gltd is an old verse Upanishad, written rather later than the
SvetdsvatarUy and worked up. into the Gltd in the interests of
Krishnaism by a poet after the Christian era.
A careful comparison of the Gltd with the Saddharma
Pundarlka ^ in ideas, language, and verse would probably help
to solve the problems presented by both poems. A number
of writers have believed that the Gltd distinctly betrays
Christian influence, but it seems rather more probable that
the poem is purely of Indian origin.^
§ 96. The Bhagavadgltd is the key to the whole of the
didactic epic. Its chief characteristics reappear in nearly all
the remaining religious documents added to the great poem
in the third stage of its history. Even in the few places where
Krishna's claim is denied, and Siva, or Surya, or Brahma is
glorified as the one God, the influence of the Gltd is still
supreme ; for the mode of exaltation is borrowed directly
from the Song : it is only the name of the god exalted that is
altered.
D. The Philosophies,
§ 97. The Maitrdyana Upanishad probably arose about the
same time as the Gltd or rather later, and it is certainly earlier
than the didactic epic, for in two passages its teaching and
language are clearly reflected.* We therefore take the Upani-
shad as standing between the two. Along with it we take the
Prasna and Mdndukya Upanishads. The former is clearly
earlier, and the latter later, than the Maitrdyana^ but pro-
bably no long time intervenes in either case: for in their
doctrine of the sacred syllable Om they are very closely
* Hopkins, /^^S. 1905, 384; Keith, /^-45. 1915, 548. Deussen also
rejects the theory.
* See SBE, XXI. xxvi ; xxxiv, and below § 125.
' For all the theories and a summary of the evidence, see Garbe, IC,
244 ff.
* Hopkins, G^£'.*33fF. • Deussen, PU, 25.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 93
connected. The Maitrdyana alone is of serious significance for
the evolution of religious ideas. Professor Keith thus writes ^ v
The Upanishad clearly reflects a period when various forms of heresy
— probably in no small measure the Buddhist — had attacked the main
outlines of the system of the Upanishads, and it endeavours to restate
that position with, as is inevitable, many traits borrowed from the
doctrine it was refuting, and among these traits are clear marks of
the Sankhya. It is characterized by a profound pessimism which is
not countenanced by the older Upanishads, which lay no stress normally
on that doctrine, but which is characteristic at once of Buddhism and of
the Sankhya.
§ 98. Sankhya conceptions, similar to those found in the
Gitd and the Maitrdyana^ appear also in the didactic epic,
and betray the existence of a formed system, an atheistic
dualism, enumerating twenty-five principles, extremely like
the classic form of the philosophy presented in the Sdhkhya
Kdrikdy but not identical with it.^ The Yoga reflected in the
Maitrdyana is more detailed than that found in any earlier
Upanishad, but the epic shows a still more advanced stage.^
§ 99. The Yoga philosophy which appears in the Artha-
sdstra may not have contained the theistic element which
occurs in the classic system ; nor do we find any conclusive
evidence of the existence of the theistic form in the Gltd* But
in the latest parts of the didactic epic there is frequent mention
of the theistic system of Yoga,* though in a form less complete
than that of the Yoga-sutras,^ As the Chtdikd Upanishad
presents the theistic Yoga in the simplest form which we
know, we are justified in assigning it to a place near the Gltd
and. before the latest parts of the epic ; and since the Sankhya
conceptions of the Chulikd' sXasi'di in very close relation to
those of the Maitrdyana^ the two Upanishads probably belong
to very nearly the same time.^
^ SS. 13.
^ Deussen, SUV. 312-13; Hopkins, GE, 97-133; Keith, 6*5. 11-13;
chap. iii. ^ Hopkins, YT, 335 ff.
* Hopkins, GE, 97-138; Keith, SS, 55. " Hopkins, Yl\ 335; 336.
« Deussen, SUV, dyj.
94 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
But the Chtilikd is clearly not the only Yoga-manual that
existed in our period. Among the many teachers of Sankhya
and of Yoga named in the didactic epic two seem to be his-
torical, Paiicha^ikha and Varshaganya.^ Numerous references
to them occur in the classic documents belonging to the two
schools, and a few quotations are embedded in the Yoga-
bhdshya^ and in Vachaspatimi^ra.^ The evidence is very
confused, so that it is hard to make sure of the truth. Pro-
bably the most satisfactory solution is to conclude that both
authors belonged to the school of theistic Yoga, that Varsha-
ganya was the author of the Shashtitantra (i. e. the Sixty-
treatise), a famous work now lost, which seems to have been in
verse,* while Panchasikha wrote a manual in sutras,^ which is
also lost. These works and the Chulikd probably belong to
the group of Yoga treatises referred to in the epic.® Another
interesting tradition which appears in the epic is that Paii-
chasikha is the teacher of the new Vaishnava sect, the Pancha-
ratras,"^ whom we shall have to deal with below.
§ ICO. There are also two groups of short Upanishads of
rather later date which were clearly meant to be practical
manuals for monks of the Vedanta and Yoga schools. The
first group glorify sannydsa^ the world-renunciation of the
Vedanta, and describe the initiation and the life of the san-
nyasi, while the Yoga group describe the six elements of
Yoga discipline (later they became eight) and give special
attention to meditation on the sacred syllable Om. These
treatises are clearly posterior to the Maitrayana and the
Chulikd^ and earlier than the Veddnta-sutras and the Yoga-
sutras. They are probably to be regarded as of the same
general date as the didactic epic, where many of their features
reappear, but some may be still later.
» XII. 218; 3i9f.
^ Woods, Yoga, 359-60; also Sahkhya-karika, 70.
' Sahkhya-tattva-kaumudty 206.
* Keith, 5*5'. Chap. v. Cf. Schrader, ZDMG, 1914, loi-io; /PAS.
iioff. » Keith, 6*5. 42.
^ XII. 301, 57; 340, 67, Hopkins, G£, 100, no.
^ Hopkins, GE, 144; but see Keith, SS. 39.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 95
Of the Sannyasa group ^ which are mostly in prose, the
Brahma and the Sannyasa are composite, their earliest por-
tions being quite as early as the Maitrdyana^ if not earlier.
The later parts of these tracts and the Aruneya^ Kanthasruti^
Jdbdla^ and Paramahamsa do not differ much in age, and are
probably not later than the chief documents of the didactic
epic ; while the Asrama may be of later origin.
The Yoga ^ group are all in verse, and all follow the lead of
the Chulikd, The earliest seemingly is the Brahmabindu^
which may be as early as the Maitrdyana. The main group,
consisting of the Kskurikd, TejobindUy Brakmavidyd, Ndda-
bindUf Yqgasikhdy Yogatattva^ Dhydnabindu^ and AmritabindUy
run parallel with the main Sannyasa group and the didactic
epic,* while the Hamsa is later and of indeterminate date.
§ 10 1. The Vaiseshika and Nyaya philosophies were already
in existence in the first century A. D. Both are mentioned by
Charaka,^ court physician to king Kanishka ; and Asvaghosha^
his contemporary, and Nagarjuna '^ who came later, mention
the Vaiseshika. Both are reflected in the didactic epic, but
the evidence is too slender to enable us to see what the form
of either system was.
E. The Didactic Epic.
§ loa. The main didactic epic is believed to have been
practically complete by 300 A. D.® It deals with a variety of
subjects, but three are of more importance than the rest,
Politics, Law, and Religion. Philosophy is included under
religion, and ethics partly under law and partly under religion.
§ 103. The compilers of the didactic epic introduced a con-
siderable body of political teaching into their cyclopaedia.
* Deussen, SUV. 678-715.
' This is clearly a shortened and modified form of an early Upanishad
belonging to the White Yajus, See Deussen, SV, 11.; SUV, 706.
' Deussen, SUV. 629-77.
* Thus Hopkins, YT, 379, says that the Yoga-technique of the epic is
on a par chronologically with the Kshurika.
^ Samhitd, iii. 8, 26 ff; Keith, /i?^5. 1914, 1093.
* Winternitz, II. i. 209. ' Woods, Yoga, xviii.
» Hopkins, GE. 387; ERE. VIII. 325.
96 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
The first half ^ of the twelfth book is almost wholly given to
the subject, and shorter pieces occur elsewhere.^ The relation
of this teaching to Kautilya s Arthaidstra^ to later political
treatises, and to the actual state of affairs at the time of the
epic,* does not seem to have been yet worked out by scholars.
§ 104. It was natural that the Vaishnava priests, who in the
interests of their sect turned the ancient epic into an encyclo-
paedia of instruction, should wish to include in it a body of
law, and that they should choose the new popular form of law
? in verse. It is also of interest to remember that their con-
stituency included Sudras and women as well as twice-born
men,^ and even people lower than Sudras.^ The legal material
is found chiefly in the thirteenth book "^ of the Mahdbhdrata,
and shows a very close relationship to the Mdnava Dharma-
idstra, Hopkins ® writes :
In all probability the code known to the later epic was not quite our
present code, but it was a code much like ours and ascribed to Manu,
a Sastra which, with some additions and omissions, such as all popular
texts in India suffer, was essentially our present text.
F. Vaishnava Material in the Didactic Epic,
§ 105. Since the transformation of the epic into an encyclo-
paedia of religion, law, and politics was carried out in the
interests of the Vaishnava sect, nearly all the religious sec-
tions are devoted to the exposition of the theology first
sketched in the Bhagavadgttd^ and to the praise of Krishna.
The second half of the twelfth book, known as Mokshadharma,
is a sort of corpus of Krishnaite teaching, containing a number
of pieces of distinct origin, and there are noteworthy sections
also in Books III, V, VI, XIII, and XIV. Four of these
^ Chaps. 1-173.
» 1.87; 140-5; II. 15; 17; 25; 62; III. 32; 33; 159; IV.4; V.33-4;
36-9; XIII. 13- XV. 5 ff.
' See above, § 45. - * See Hopkins, Ruling Caste^JAOS, XIII.
^ GitcLy IX. 32. * Hopkins, GE, 2.
' Numerous pieces of legal lore are found elsewhere, especially in the
first and twelfth books. * G^^". 22-3.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 97
portions are of such outstanding philosophic and. religious in-
terest that they are frequently selected for separate treatment :
V. 40-45 : Sanatsujatlya.
VI. 25-43: Bhagavadgita.
Xn. 174-367: Mokshadharma.
XIV. 16-51 : Anuglta.
There is ohe chapter ^ in the thirteenth book which is greatly
treasured by devout Vaishnavas, because it contains the
thousand names of Vishnu, and one chapter in the third
book ^ contains a panegyric of Vishnu by Bhima, and another,
in the political portion of the twelfth book ^ contains a hymn
of praise to Vishnu sung by the great Bhlshtna.
We have already discussed the' Gltd. One considerable
section of the Mokshadharma* is known as the Narayaniya
and seems to reflect a later period in the history of the
Vishnuite sect. It will therefore be discussed separately
along with a passage from the sixth book,^ which seems to
contain similar teaching. The other portions fall to be con-
sidered here.
The leading ideas here are the same as in the Gltd. We
are taught that the highest religion is the worship of Krishna
as Vishnu, who is the Brahman of the Upanishads. The
Sankhya and the Yoga systems are represented as being
essentially the same as the philosophy of Brahman, and all
three are taught as philosophic foundations for the Vaishnava
religion. There is no care taken to describe any one of these
systems with precision, and no articulated Vaishnava theology
is taught. As in the Gttd^ there are large pieces of a Sah-
khyan character, others that teach Yoga, and yet others that
reflect the monism of the Upanishads. The Sanatsujatlya
(V. 40-45) is the most important monistic section. Numerous
passages teach slightly variant philosophic systems in which
Sankhya, Yoga, and Upanishad elements intermingle inter-
minably. The student may scan these outlines in Hopkins's
* 149. '271. ^48. * Chaps. 335-53.
^ Chaps. 65-8.
H
98 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
Great EpicS The Anugltd is a direct imitation of the Giid.
In these passages theology makes no perceptible advance, but
* the pictorial myth of Sesha, Vishnu, and Brahma appears, and
' six incarnations of Vishnu are mentioned, the Boar, the Man-
lion, the Dwarf, the Fish, Rama, and Krishna.
§ 106. We now take the Narayaniya,^ which shows a later
stage of Vaishnava teaching. The ancient name Bhagavata
occurs, but Sattvata,^ and Paiicharatra,* especially the latter,
appear more frequently. There is a Paiicharatra scripture ^
. compiled by the seven Chitra^ikhandin Rishis, doubtless the
forerunner of the Sarhhitas which we shall discuss later.* The
origin and meaning of the word Paiicharatra are not yet known
with certainty."^ We have shown above in what precise respects
the sect was heterodox.*
In the Narayaniya occurs the doctrine of Vyuha or expan-
sion, according to which Vishnu exists in four forms. The
doctrine ^ is that from Vasudeva springs Samkarshana, from
Samkarshana Pradyumna, from Pradyumna Aniruddha, and
from Aniruddha Brahma. Samkarshana and the three others
ale then identified with the cosmic existences posited by the
Sankhya philosophy thus :
Vasudeva. . the supreme Reality.
Samkarshana . primeval matter, prakritu
Pradyumna . cosmic mind, manas.
Aniruddha . cosmic self-consciousness, ahatnkdrcu
Brahma . . Creator of the visible world, the bhutdnu
It is very difficult to make out what the idea behind this
scheme is.^® Vasudeva is Krishna; Balarama, or Samkarshana,"
is Krishna's brother, Pradyumna his son, and Aniruddha one
of his grandsons. It is probable that these three were local
^ Chap. iii. ^ XII. 335-52- ' XII. 349, 29.
* XII. 336, 25 ; 349, 82; 350, 63.
» XII. 336, 28; 349, 82; 350, 67.
® § 212. "f See Schrader, IP AS, 24 flf. » Above, § 79.
^ See Schrader-, IP AS, 35 ff. ; Chanda, lAR, 109 ff.
»° See Schrader, IP AS. 39 ff.
*^ Samkarshana means * Withdrawn ', because he was drawn out of his
mother's womb and placed in RohinT,
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 99
divinities, that an arrangement was made to bring them into
relation with Krishna so as to form a combined sect, and that
the doctrine of the Vyuhas is a theologism created to give
them a permanent place in the teaching and the worship of
the community.
The (J^arayanlya' shows also an advanced stage of the incar-
, nation doctrine. There are ten incarnations of Vishnu recog-
• nized here,^ while in the earlier lists ^ there are four, or six.
Hopkins* holds that Paiicha^ikha, the teacher of the
Sankhya-Yoga, a theistic form of the Sankhya philosophy, as
we have seen above,* was regarded by the Pancharatras as the
author of the philosophical teaching of the sect. This is
interesting; because the Vaishnava theology unquestionably
rests on a Sankhya-Yoga basis.
This passage, the Narayanlya, tells a story to the effect that
Narada took a long journey to the north, where he came to
the Sea of Milk, in the midst of which was White Island,
inhabited by white men who worshipped Narayana, i.e.
Vishnu.* The men, their beliefs, their sanctity, and their
worship are described. A number of scholars have believed
they detected distinct traces of Christianity in the passage,
and the question has been much discussed, with rather doubt-
ful results.^
§ 107. The two epics borrow from each other at this period J
There are a number of interpolations in the text of the
Rdmdyana which are clearly contemporaneous with the
didactic epic, one passage containing a copy of the description
of the inhabitants of White Island.^ These latest interpola-
tions are mostly in the seventh book, but the most important
of all is a canto in the sixth,^ in which Rama is praised as
a full incarnation of Vishnu, and is called the eternal Brahman.
* .XII. 340, 100. » Above, § 84. ' GE, \^\.
* § 99. ' XII. 336, 8-9.
* See the theories and the evidence, Garbe, /C 191-200.
■^ Hopkins, GE. 59, 72. » Cf. R, VII. 11 with MBH. XII. 336.
* VI. Ii9j see Muir, OST. IV. 148 ff. The other most noteworthy
passages are VII. 6, 17, 57, 75-7, no.
H %
loo THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
The same theological conceptions are here applied to RSma
as are applied to Krishna in the didactic epic. We have
already seen that Rama is recognized as Vishnu in the
Krishna-epic. Similarly Krishna is recognized in these late
interpolations in the Rdmdyana}
§ io8. It is important to notice what stage the Krishna
legend has reached in the didactic epic. We are told that he
was born in Mathura to kill Kamsa and other demons, and
that after he had done that he went to Dvarika in Kathiawar.^
His parents* names, Vasudeva and Devakl,^ are given, but the
story of his birth and of his being miraculously saved from
the wrath of Kamsa is not told ; * and there is nothing to
suggest that the child Krishna was worshipped in those days.
Nor is there the slightest hint that he was brought up among
the cowherds of Gokul. The stories of his boyish tricks with
the cowherds, his youthful sports ^ among the Gopis, and his
killing of the demons in the cow-settlement, which are so
prominent in the Harwainsa and the Puranas are absent here,
except in a few passages which are manifestly very late inter-
polations.® Radha is not mentioned at all.
* VI. 119; VII. 50.
2 II. 14, 34-50; XII. 340, 86-7. ' VII. 144; XVI. 7.
* We must note carefully, however, that the story of the death of
Kamsa is very old ; for it was already dramatized in the second century B. C,
as Pataiijali tells us.
" But m XIII. 149, 88, one of his names is *he who sports joyously on
the banks of the Jumna '.
* Thus II. 68, 41 b to 46 a, which calls Krishna *Lord of VrajV and
* favourite of the milkmaids ', is clearly a very late piece interpolated into
a very early section ; for it makes DraupadI appeal to Krishna for help
in her frightful need, while the original says that Dharma, the god of
law and right, stood by and helped her. Garbe's argument (CL 227)
is thus of very doubtful value. Similarly, in II. 41, ^isupala, in abusing
Krishna, calls him ' the cowherd ' and says that Bhishma has praised him
for killing Putana and the vulture and other notable deeds ; but, when we
turn to Bhishma's praise of Krishna in chap. 38, there is no mention of
Putana, or the vulture, or any other of these exploits. Thus at least verses
4-1 1 of chap. 41 are an interpolation: Bhandarkar, VS, 35 f. It is
probable that these local legends had been long current in Mathura.
The point we emphasize is that they had not been accepted into the
offici§Ll body of Vaishnava teaching when the didactic epic was formed.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM loi
G. Saiva Material in the Didactic Epic.
§ 109. In the didactic epic Siva takes quite as subordinate
a place as he does in the heroic poem. Scholars seem to be
agreed that the passages in the late books ^ which exalt and
praise him are, on the whole, later than the mass of Vaisbnava
teaching ; and indeed it seems most probable that the changed
Saiva theology which those passages show was formed in
direct and conscious imitation of the New Vaishnavism.
The Saiva sections consist, in the main, of narrative^,^
hymns of praise,^ and expositions of the new Saiva theology.*
The narratives, which tell how this or that hero went and
praised Siva, in order to receive from him some heavenly
weapon of war of peculiar effectiveness, are of minor interest.
The hymns of praise are valuable because we see the new
teaching reflected in them most clearly. The greatest of these
hymns-^ sets forth the one thousand and eight names of Siva,
a Saiva copy of the thousand names of Vishnu.^ In these
ascriptions of praise one half of the new Vaishnava theology is
transferred in the lump to Siva : there is only a change of
names. Siva is the Brahman of the Upanishads, the Eternal,
the Supreme, the source of all gods, all beings, and all things.
The other half of Vaishnava theology, the doctrine of divine
incarnations, is not carried over. In its place we have
divine 'theophani^s : Siva appears in various human disguises
or other forms to test, or teach, or gratify his worshippers."^
Pa^upata,^ the name of the new Saiva theology, is thus
* The most important are III. 38-41; VII. 80-1; XII. 284-85;
XIII. 14-18; 160-1. The most significant are discussed by Muir, OST.
IV. 150-70.
* III. 38-41; VII. 80-1. Cf. also X. 7, which may be of earlier
origin.
• VII. 80, 54-63; XII. 285, 3-1 15; XIII. 14, 283-326; 16, 12-63; 17.
* XII. 285, 122-5; 350, 63-6; XIII. 160-1.
• XIII. 17. • XIII. 149.
' III. 39, 2; VII. 80, 38-40; X. 7, 60; XII. 284, 60; &c.
• For the Pasupata see esp. Hopkins, GE, 86; 96; 118; 152-7;
189 «. Cf. what he says on the theistic faith in general, 102-3; lo^j
115; The chief references in the epic are XII. 285; 321; 350; XIII.
14-18; 160-1.
I02 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
parallel to Pancharatra, the name of the new Vaishnavism.
Pai^upata is formed from Pa^upati, lord of flocks, an epithet
used of Rudra in early literature.^ But the sect gave the word .
a new religious significance. Pa^upati is the Lord (pati), and
man, his creature ^ (pai^u), is bound by the fetter (pai^a) of the
world, and requires to be released by the Lord. Pa^upata is
scarcely distinguishable from Pancharatra as a system. Both
use the fundamental conceptions of the Sankhya and Yoga,
yet are anxious to be in complete harmony with the teaching
of the Upanishads. The similarity goes even further; for
both number thirty-one philosophical principles, an enumera-
tion which is associated with the name of Paiicha^ikha.^ There
is this difference between the two systems that, while Vishnu
has four forms, Siva has eight.* The Pa^upata is also
heterodox, like the Paiicharatra.^
§iio. There is one further point to note with, regard to
Siva. In a few of the more important Pai^upata passages in
#the thirteenth book, his phallic emblem, the lihga^ is made the
subject of great laudation. No mention of the linga occurs in
earlier literature ; ® yet, as is well known, all Saivas are lihga-
worshippers to-day. The question of its origin has been often
discussed, but has not yet been settled."^ Archaeologists tell
us that lihgas belonging to pre-Christian dates are in exis-
tence ; so that they must be earlier than the first mention in
literature. The explanation probably is that the lihga is of
aboriginal origin, as sUnadeva of the Rigveda implies, that it
passed into popular Hinduism and into sculpture at an ejtrly
date, but did not receive Brahmanical recognition until after
* White Yajurueda^ XVI. 28 ; Atharifaveda^ XI. ii. 28; AsvcUayana
GS. iv. 8 ; Paraskara GS, iii. 8 ; Barth, /^/, 164.
^ The figure comes from the farmer with his beast and the rope with
which it is bound. ' Creature * must not be taken literally : the soul is
eternal and uncreated.
' Hopkins, GE. 152 ff. * Hopkins, G£. 143.
* MBH. XIL 285, 124; Hopkins, GE. 114.
* Except the sisnadeva of the Rik,
' Kittel, Ueber den Ur sprung des Lihgakultus\ Barth, RI, 271;
Hopkins, RL 150.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 103
the Christian era. It had been already accepted when the
Pa^upata system was formed.
§111. In two of these passages^ the phrase urddhva-lihga
occurs ; in one of them sthira-lihga is found ; ^ in two urddhva-
retas occurs ; ^ and in another mahdiepho nagno,^ These
phrases clearly refer to the conception of the god which is
represented in the images of the Lakulli^a sect ; * yet the name
Lakull^a does not occur in the epic. Since the name means
* the club-bearing god ', Fleet ^ conjectures that the Siva with
a club represented on the coins of the Kushan King Huvishka
about A.D. 11^5-140 is Lakull^a; but the name may be later
than the coins.
§ 112. There is an Upanishad, the Atharvasiras^ which is
a Pa^upata document, and is probably of about the same date
as the PaiSupata passages in the epic. Rudra-Pai^upati is here
the first principle of all things, and also the final goal ; pati,
pa^u, pa^a, are all mentioned ; the yoga method of meditation
on the sacred syllable Ont is recommended ; and the use of
ashes for smearing the body is called the Pai^upata ordinance.
Three other Saiva Upanishads, the Artharvaiikha^ the
Nilarudra^ and the Kaivalya ^ may belong to the same time.
ii. Buddhism.
A. The Hlnaydna,
§ 113. We must think of Buddhism at the beginning of this
period as active and spreading in most parts of India and
Ceylon, and also in Burmah, along the Himalayas from Nepal
to Kashmir, in Afghanistan, and also in Central Asia. In the
first century A.D. the religion found a welcome in China, and
* XIII. 17, 46; 161, 17; Muir, OST. IV. 344.
' XIII. 161, II. ^ XIII. 14, 212; 17, 46.
* XIII. 14, 157. Muir, OST, IV. 160. » See § 165.
* JRAS. 1907, 419.
' Deussen, SUV. 716 ff; Muir, OST, IV. 298-304. There are variant
texts of this work : Bhandarkar, KS*. III.
« Deussen, SUV, 726 ff,
* See MBH, XIII. 160, 4, 22; 161, 23; and above, p. 101, n. 4.
I04 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
about the same time entered Kuchar and Khotan in E. Turke-
stan, and also Persia. Naturally we can trace only in very
broken outlines the literary work of the Buddhist Church in its
various schools scattered over these wide regions.
The community already had numerous schools of thought,^
but these distinctions did not create sects : all Buddhists still
worshipped together. Of these schools we must now distinctly
envisage three, if we are to understand the development, the
Sihaviras, who were phenomenalists, the SarvastivddinSy who
were realists, and the Mahasdhghikas^ who w6re idealists.
a. Sthavira Literature.
§ 1 14, The Sthaviras, the oldest of the schools, were found
in North India and predominated in Ceylon. The Pali books
which exist to-day are the Canon of the Sthaviras of Ceylon
as reduced to writing there in the first century B.C. Hence,
if we accept the critical opinion that the Abhidhamma Pitaka
did not exist in the time of Aioka,^ we must conclude that it
was formed somewhere between the two dates. The natural
conclusion then is that the seven works of that collection were
gradually formed and compiled, either in North India or Ceylon,
during the first part of our period. This fresh material is not
of the same value or interest as the best parts of the Sutta
Pitaka. It consists for the most part of dry, unilluminating
classifications and definitions of Buddhist terms and ideas,
served up in scholastic fashion for the training of monks.^
The Canon was reduced to writing in Ceylon during the first
century e.g., but the date cannot be more exactly defined.*
Since then the text has been preserved with fair, but certainly
not with faultless, accuracy.
§115. The Questions of King Milinda is the name of
a famous book, the main part of which was written in North
India, probably in the first century B.C., possibly a little later.
* Kern, B, iiof., 123 ; ERE. VI. 686. * See § 64.
' Winternitz, II. i, I34ff. * Kern, B, 120; Wintemitz, II. i. 11.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 105
In what language it was originally written is not known. It
has been preserved only in Pali in Ceylon and in two Chinese
translations. It is clear from quotations that the Canon which
the author used was the same as the Pali Canon, yet the read-
ings do not agree precisely. The book is much honoured in
Ceylon. Indeed it enjoys a consideration and an authority
very little inferior to the Pali Canon itself. Milinda is the
Pali for Menander, a Greek King who ruled in the Punjab
and attacked the empire of Magadha, about 155 B.C. Accord-
ing to tradition he became a Buddhist. The book is a piece
of apologetic, a dialogue, in which a monk named Nagasena
answers the king's questions about Buddhist faith and practice.
It seems clear that the original work covered only a frag-
ment of Book I with Books II and III. The subjects discussed
in those sections are amongst the most important of all
Buddhist questions, e. g. nirvana and karma, individuality and
soul, renunciation, faith, perseverance, and meditation ; and the
style is strikingly beautiful, the expression easy and graceful,
and the illustrations exceedingly well chosen. In Books IV to
VII a large number of minor questions are dealt with ; the
style, though still goojd, lacks the brilliance of Books II and
III ; and, while the main teaching keeps very close to the
Pali canon, yet the influence of later ideas is visible. A
tendency is shown to turn away from the ideal of the Arhat,
who wins nirvana by a strenuous discipline at once, to the con-
ception of the Bodhisattva,^ who reaches release by means of
devotion in a long career reaching through countless lives.^
These last books were probably written much later in Ceylon.
§ 116. All the Buddhist schools of North India which have
left literature wrote in Sanskrit or in various forms of what is
known as mixed Sanskrit. The origin and history of these
literary dialects have not yet been definitely ascertained.
Some scholars are inclined to think that they are the work of
imperfectly trained men trying to write Paninean Sanskrit,
* Lit. *one whose nature is wisdom', but used technically of one who is
destined to become a Buddha. ^ See § 124 B.
io6 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
while others think they are literary modifications of local
dialects. There are two facts about them which require to be
carefully noted: first, each school seems to have its own
dialect ; secondly, as time went on, pure Sanskrit steadily won
its way in all the schools.
b. Sautrdntika Literature.
§117. The Sautrantikas ^ were a branch of the Sthavira
school who received their name because of their reliance on the
Sutta Pitaka, to the neglect of the Abhidhamma. It thus
seems clear that their rise must have coincided with the
gradual formation of the Abhidhamma. They formed, in
exposition of their teaching, a philosophical system which is
called the Sautrantik philosophy. They believec(^ in the
existence of the external world, and held an atomic theory of
matter, but taught that perception happens indirectly.^ Their
theory of the self, founded on the original Buddhist conception
of man's psychical life,^ proved a stepping-stone from the
phenomenalist position of the Sthaviras to the Mahayana
Philosophy of Vacuity.* The self, they argued, is a long
series (samtdna) of phenomenal^ elements, each member of
which exists only for a moment so infinitesimal that its appari-
tion and destruction may be said to be simultaneous. Each
momentary member {kshana) of the series is both an effect and
a cause, yet possesses no real activity. Birth, existence, old
age, death, are all illusions; for "the series in uncreated, un-
interrupted. Thus there is no identity, no continuous exis-
tence. On the other hand, they declared this self, consisting
of a phenomenal series, to be autonomous ; for * all we are is
the result of what we have thought '. They also hold the self
to be self-conscious, conscious directly of self and indirectly of
other things. The scholar with whose name this philosophy
^ Sautrdntika is formed from sutrdnta^ the Pali form of which is
suttanta^ a variant of sutta,
2 Jacobi, ERE, II. 201. ' See § 61.
* See § 124 c.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 107
is connected is Kumaralabdha,^ a contemporary of Nagarjuna,^
but very little is known about Sautrautika literature.
c. Sarvdstivadin Literature.
§ I j8. The home of the Sarvdstivadin^ i.e. the * All-things-
exist*, or realist, school seems to have been Kashmir, but
they spread far and wide. Their Canon was in Sanskrit and,
apart from the Sthavira, was the only Canon which possessed
a third, or Abhidharma, * basket*. As has been already
remarked, the contents of this Abhidharma were absolutely
distinct from the Sthavira Abhidhamma. We may be certain
that the Vinaya and Sutra 'baskets' of their Canon were
already in existence by the beginning of our period, but it is
as yet impossible to say how far they differed from the
Sthavira Canon : for we are almost entirely dependent for our
knowledge upon Chinese and Tibetan translations, only
fragments of the original Sanskrit having survived. They
seem to have had also a special literature of their own. Like
a number of the other leading schools, they had their own
Life of the Master ; and it must have been a powerful and
popular work, for it was taken over afterwards by the new
Buddhism, called the Mahayana, and it survives only in its
altered form, the most famous of all lives of the Buddha, the
Lalita Vistara?
The Sarvastivadin philosophy, an outgrowth from the
realistic teaching of the sect, is an atomic doctrine of matter
combined with a theory of direct perception.* Thus, in their
speculative teaching, they stood near the Jains and the Vaii^e-
shikas, but they denied the eternity of atoms.* The foundation-
text of their Abhidharma Pitaka, the Jnanaprasthdna-idstray
is by their most renowned scholar, Katyayaniputra. Six
ancillary works, called *the feet* of the Abhidharma, by
Vasumitra and other writers, complete the contents of the
* Kern, B, 127; Poussin, Opinions^ 178 ff. ' See § 128.
* Nanjio, 159, 160; Winternitz, II. i. 194 ff.
* Jacobi, ERE. II. 201. * lb. 202 C.
io8 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
Pitaka. The date of these books is not yet known with
certainty. On these works commentaries were then written,
which carried the philosophy a step farther. The com-
mentaries were called Vibhasha, and hence the philosophy was
called Vaibhashika. Tradition suggests that the Vibhasha
arosain the reign of Kanishka.
According to Sarvastivadin books, a general Buddhist
Council was held, under the authority of Kanishka, at some
place in Kashmir, and at the Council commentaries on the
three baskets of the Canon were composed, those on the
Vinaya and Abhidharma being called Vibhasha aind those on
the Sutra Pitaka Upade^a. The traditions about this Council
are, however, very untrustworthy, so that some scholars doubt
whether it was ever held at all. Others think that a Sarvasti-
vadin council was actually held, and that, in imitation of the
story of the Council of Ai^oka, they called it a General Council.
In any case, the commentaries which in the tradition are
associated with the Council are Sarvastivadin, and a number
of them were probably written after the time of Kanishka.
From the Sarvastivadin Vinaya and the ancient Jatakas
there sprang numberless tales of heroic deeds done by
Buddhas and saints called Avadanas, precisely like the
Apadanas of the P^ali Canon. Two collections belong to this
period, the Avaddna-sataka^ or Century of Tales, and the
Karma-sataka? or Century of Deeds. A third collection of
great renown, the Divydvaddna? or Divine Tales, which pro-
bably dates from after i^oo A.D., calls itself a Mahayana work,
but is manifestly of Sarvastivadin origin. From these books
sprang an edifying literature which flourished for many
centuries.
The famous writer A^vaghosha was a Sarvastivadin and
probably wrote some of his works before he became a
Mahayanist.*
^ Winternitz, II. i. 216. '^ lb. 221.
' lb. 221 ; Mitra, 304. * See § 127,
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 109
d. Mahdsdhghika Literature,
§ 119. The Mahasanghikas, one of the very earUest
schools, were idealists in Metaphysics. They were inclined
to raise the Buddha above humanity, and to identify his
personality with that of the former Buddhas. They had
a Vinaya Pitaka and a Sutra Pitaka, written in a curious
mixed Sanskrit. Of the Vinaya two works still exist in
Chinese and Tibetan ; and the Ekotiardgama preserved in
the Chinese and the Tibetan Canons is from the Mahasahghika
Sutra Pitaka.^ One of the branches of this school was known
as the school of the LokottaravddinSy or Tianscendentalists,
because they believed that the Buddha was not a human being
enmeshed in the life of the world, but one raised far above it.
A book called the Mahdvastu^ written in the curious Maha-
sanghika Sanskrit, has come down to us. It arose in the
Vinaya of the Lokottaravadins, but very little Vinaya material
now remains in it. The book contains a vast amount of
matter of different kinds and also of varying dates — a life
of the Buddha, tales and sermons, poems and Jatakas, many
of them early compositions ; so that it forms * one of the
most noteworthy books of Buddhist antiquity '. The Buddha-
Biography does not differ in any appreciable degree from the
narratives of the Pali Canon, but its theory of the person of
the Buddha is distinctly docetic. * The Buddha of the Maha-
vastu is a superman. He feels neither hunger nor thirst ; he
lives in ignorance of carnal desires ; his wife remains a virgin.
It is from consideration for humanity, in order to conform to
the customs of the world, that he behaves as a man, or that
he gives to men the false impression that he is behaving as
a man. In technical terms, he is lokottara, superior to the
world.' The work lays great stress on the saving power of
* Pali Sutta Pitaka : Sanskrit Sutra Pitaka :
1. Dighanikaya. i. Dlrghagama.
2. Majjhimanikaya. 2. Madhyamagama.
3». Saihyuttanikaya. 3. Sarhyuktagama.
4. Anguttaranikaya. 4. Ekottaragama.
5. Khuddakanikaya. 5. Kshudrakagama.
no THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
devotion to him. It also names large numbers of former
Buddhas, and believes in the existence of many worlds besides
our own, in each of which a Buddha reigns concurrently with
the Buddha here. The Mahdvastu thus forms the bridge
between the Hinayana and the Mahayana. The chapter
called Da^abhumika,^ which describes the stages {bkumis)
through which a man passes in becoming a Buddha is probably
a later interpolation. Much of the book is early.^
§ lao. Matricheta was born a Brahman but became a Buddhist.
He was invited to the Kushan court, seemingly by Kanishka,
but begged to be excused on account of age. He left two
hymns of praise, which were used for centuries by Maha-
yanists as well as Hinayanists, and which served as models
for later writers. One has survived, and fragments of the
other, along with his letter to the king.^ He seems to stand
between the Hinayana and the Mahayana.
e. Buddhist Worship.
§ i!Zi. From iioo B.C. down to the Christian era the great
Buddhist stupas were enriched with masses of beautiful sculp-
ture. Pious Buddhists were accustomed to walk round the
stupas with reverent steps. Enclosing this path of circumam-
bulation there stood a stone railing with a lofty arched gate
at each of the cardinal points. These gates were covered
with sculpture, and in certain examples the railing itself was
decorated with sculptured plaques and panels. Examples,
ruinous or well-preserved, have been found in several places.*
In this early work no image of the Buddha appears, but in
many of the scenes represented his presence is indicated by
some symbol, and all the carved work breathes the spirit of
* ERE. II. 744 f., VIII. 329 f. 2 wintemitz, II. i. 193.
' Thomas, ERE. VIII. 495; Wintemitz, II. i. 211; Nanjio, 1456;
WotrrA^y MRBL. 58-84. Vidyabhushana, y^^*^. 1910, 425, refers him
to the fourth century.
* Notably at SanchT in the Bhopal State, at Bharhut in Rewa, at Buddh-
Gaya in Bihar, at Amaravati on the Kistna and in Ceylon. V. Smith,
i/F^. 65-81; 86-8.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM iii
devotion. Here we have the reflection in art of the new spirit
which shines out from the literature.
In the first century A.D. a new Indo-Greek art, distinctive
above all in its sculptures, arose in Gandhara, the district of
which Peshawar is the centre. Images of the Buddha were
for the first time made by these artists ; and all the Buddhist
schools used them as aids to devotion : this is a noteworthy
and far-reaching change.
§ iii2. Buddhist monks found it necessary to keep abreast
of all the culture of the day, so as to be able to influence the
rising laity. We therefore find them well acquainted with
Hindu philosophy and with the new forms of religion enshrined
in the Epic. In the last quarter of the first century of our
era, the strong government of the Kushan empire, extending
far to the west and the north of India, opened the doors wide
to Buddhist Missions ; and the numerous races the missionaries
had to teach, coupled with the rich variety of foreign influences
which met in the empire, led to great changes in Buddhist
thought and practice.
B. The Mahdydna,
§ 123. These movements, coupled with new ideas and
practices which had been gaining ground in the old sects for
two centuries, found their culmination in the creation of a new
Buddhism called the Mahayana, or great vehicle, in contrast
with the old Buddhism, which was depreciated as the Hina-
yana, or small vehicle.^ The Mahayana is, on one side, the
acute Hinduizing of Buddhism, on the other, the humanizing
of the old discipline, so as to make Buddhism more suitable
for the cultured Indian layman and for the men of many races
now crowding into the community. The rise of this system
is probably to be placed in the reign of Kanishka (perhaps
A.D. 78-123), towards the end of the first and the beginning
Mt is probable that Hinayana was originally used with reference to
Arhatship, the mode of individual salvation, as opposed to Bodhisattva-
ship, the plan for the salvation of many.
iia THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
of the second century ; for all tradition points to that time,
and many Mahayana texts were translated into Chinese
before A. D. 170.^
The vast literature created by the Mahayana does not
survive as a definite Canon in the original tongues. Portions
of it have been found in NepaP and fragments elsewhere;
but for our knowledge of the mass of the books we have to
have recourse to the Chinese ^ and Tibetan * Canons.
a. The Full Mahayana,
§ 134. There are two distinct Mahayana systems to be
recognized at this time. The first may be called the full
Mahayana, as it contains all the features of the new Buddhism.
They may be summed up under three heads :
A. Devotion. Mahayanists recognize that there are innu-
merable Buddhas, each in his own world, and innumerable
Bodhisattvas, the most advanced of which live in the heavens.
Buddhas and advanced Bodhisattvas are fit objects of devotion,
and devotion brings its rich rewards. One result of this change
was that the Buddhas, though they were still thought of as
being in nirvana, were regarded as responding In some way
to the devotion showered upon them. Their personality and
activity consequently became more distinct, until they were
thought of almost like Hindu gods. We must recognize here
a distinct change in the conception of nirvana.^ Thus in that
most orthodox Mahayana book, the Saddharma Pundarlka^
Gautama is made almost an eternal being of omnipotent
power, who from time to time descends to earth, like Vishnu,
to be born in the world of the living. Similarly those Bodhi-
sattvas who are drawing near the stage of final enlightenment
* N^njio, Cols. 381-3.
* See especially Mitra, Nepalese Buddhist Literature,
' Bunyiu Nanjio, A Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Budd-
hist Trtpitaka.
* EREIVW. 785, 789 j Feer, Analyse du Kandjour^ Annales du Musde
Guimet, II.
' Thomas, Buddhist Scriptures y 15.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 113
are now regarded as mighty divinities living in the heavens,
helping men, and actually declining to enter nirvana in order
that they may help men the more.
The Mahayanists created a showy worship, with processions,
music, and incense ; and a rich liturgy was prepared for each
Buddha. The monks took charge of the cult ; so that the
old chaitya became a temple and the monk a priest.
B. The Bodhisattva Life?- The monk of the Hinayana
sought to become an arhaty a man who, by a life of asceticism
and meditation in obedience to the precepts of the Buddha,
has reached the nirvana of the extinction of all desire ; but he
regarded himself as a mere pupil, following the directions of
the omniscient Buddha, and never dreamt of becoming a
Buddha himself. The Mahay ana now declared that, to reach
real release, it was necessary to acquire the perfections and
the omniscience of the Buddhas, and that, though the upward
struggle would take ah incalculable number of ages, the goal
was within the reach of every human being. Each person,
man or woman, was therefore exhorted to take at once the
vow to become a Buddha ; and the assurance was given that
the power of that vow was sufficient to bear them through
the innumerable births and serious sufferings which lay before
them. If they began a life of active benevolence, and sought
to rouse within themselves the desire to save all creatures,
they would pass through the ten stages {bhumis) of the career.
Since the end was certain, each person who took the vow at
once became a Bodhisattva, one destined to become a Buddha.
The influence of the Jatakas, which contain narratives of
numerous acts of incredible self-sacrifice done by Gautama in
his earlier births, is very manifest in the new conception.
Since Gautama was believed to have lived as a householder for
countless lives, celibacy was not a necessary element of the
discipline. Neophyte Bodhisattvas, both men and women,
were encouraged to marry, but they were allowed to acquire
merit by living the monastic life for a time, if they cared to do
* Poussin, ERE, art. * Bodhisattva', and VIII. 33 f. ; Opinions, 275 ff.
I
114 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
so. On the other hand, the Mahayana prohibited the eating
of flesh.
C. The Mahayana Philosophy of Vacuity} The early
denial of the existence of the ego and the Sautrantika
doctrine, that the ego consists of an endless series of infini-
tesimal moments, led to the formulation of the doctrine that
there is no real existence, that all things are but appearance,
and are in truth empty. This is the famous doctrine of
sunyatd, Vacuity. The young Bodhisattva cannot see the
truth of this doctrine, but in the course of his progress to
Buddhahood he will come to realize it ; for it is the sum of
the wisdom of all the Buddhas.
§ iii5. A large literature was produced by this school during
our period. Amongst these works is one of the greatest of
Buddhist books, the Saddharma Pundarlka^ * The Lotus ',
or, as we should say, * The Rose of the True Religion '. The
book probably appeared towards the end of the first or the
beginning of the second century,^ but six of the chapters of
the work as it has come down to us (xxi-xxvi) are of later
origin. The original work contains the whole Mahayana
system. The most noteworthy element is the way in which
Gautama the Buddha is represented. According to the old
teaching, he has gone to nirvana and can no longer have any
relations with the world of men. Here he is represented
practically as an omnipotent God, whose life is limitless
before and after, in whose hands are the universe and all
creatures, who dwells continually in infinite glory. It is true
he also teaches the Buddha-laws, but his birth, life, teaching,
and death are but an appearance, and his passing away into
nirvana is but a device to lead men to accept the Buddha-
laws. The influence of the Vedanta and of the Glta are very
prominent here. The conception of Krishna-Vishnu as the
* ERE, art. * Madhyamaka *.
* ERE. art. * Lotus of True Law'; Wintemitz, IL i. 230-8; Kern,
SEE. xxi.
' Wintemitz puts it about A. D. 200; Poussin in the first century,
Opinions^ 259.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 115
Supreme is adapted to Buddhist conceptions. Many of the
titles are borrowed unchanged, Supreme Spirit, Self-existent,
Great Father, World-Father, Ruler of the Triple World,
Creator, Destroyer, Physician. He is Everlasting, All-knowing,
All-seeing. He wields magic power, mdydy which he uses in
sport, Itld. He is repeatedly bon>in the world of the living.
When men become unbelieving, he appears in this world to
save. Yet, although Buddha in the Lotus is practically the
Supreme, the language is so carefully guarded throughout
that Prof. Poussin can say, * There is not a single word in the
Lotus which is not capable of an orthodox, i. e. "atheist"
interpretation.'^ The work had large influence in India,
whence it passed to China and Japan, and later to Nepal.
It is the most popular of all Buddhist books in Japan to-day.
§ 10,6. The philosophic doctrine of Vacuity was taught in
a large number of books, short and long, called the Prajiia-
paramita-sutras,^ i.e. *the sutras of the wisdom-perfections' of
the Buddhas. Of these the Dasasdhasrika Prajndpdramitd"
sUtra? i. e. the * Ten- thousand-line Sutra', belongs to our period.
This work also describes the ten stages (bhumis) of the Bodhi-
sattva career. The chapter called Dai^abhumika * interpolated
into the Mahdvastu probably comes from this time also.
§ 127. A^vaghosha^ was born of Brahman parents, but
became a Buddhist, first of the Sarvastivadin school, but
finally of the Mahayana. His splendid genius proved of
signal service to Buddhism ; for he is a most notable figure
in Sanskrit literature, and one of the greatest of the pre-
decessors of Kalidasa. He was equally distinguished in epic,
dramatic, and lyric poetry. His greatest work is the Buddha-
charita^ an epic poem on the life of Buddha. Part of it is
lost, yet enough remains to show his genius and his art. In
its delineation of the life and work of the Buddha, it scarcely
* ERE. VIII. 145.
« Nanjio, cols, i to 8; ERE, IV. 838; VIII. 235.
' Nanjio, col. 381 ; also no. 5. * See § 119.
» ERE.2iri, * A^vaghosha ' ; SEE. xlix; Wintemitz, II. i. 201; H.P.
Sa^tri, JASB, 1909, 47 ; Nanjio, col. 369.
1%
ii6 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
goes beyond the Pali Canon, but in freshness and power it
stands altogether on another level, the work of a true poet.
A second epic, the Saundardnanda-Kdvya^ which deals with
a number of scenes and incidents connected with the Ufe of
Buddha, also survives. The Sutrdlamkdra^ of which a Chinese
version and a few fragments in Sanskrit are extant, is a
collection of avadanas, i.e. Buddhist legends told in mingled
prose and verse, the style in common use then for artistic
romances. A large number of these storie;5 are old, many
are new, but all are graced and heightened by AiSvaghosha's
charm. There are two philosophical workg ascribed to
him, the Vajrasuchl^ i. e. the * Diamond-needle ', and the
Mahay dnairaddhotpadasastruy the * Mahayana-faith-awakening
Treatise', but serious doubts as to his authorship of both
works still remain.
§ 128. Nagarjuna,^ a Brahman convert, who became the
greatest authority on Mahayana Buddhism, is regarded as
a younger contemporary of A^vaghosha in Buddhist tradition ;
and modern scholars are inclined to place his activity in the
latter half of the second century. His chief service was to
think out the new doctrine of Vacuity. In those days a
philosopher embodied his teaching in a series of aphorisms,
either in prose (sutras) or in verse {kdrikds)^ and expounded
them in a commentary. Nagarjuna's work is in verse and,
as the system is called the middle teaching, Madhyamaka, the
book is known as the Mddhyamaka-kdrikds. The system is
called Madhyamaka because its leading idea, ' All things are
empty*, takes the middle course between existence and non-
existence. Two distinct kinds of truth must be recognized,
apparent truth, samvritisatya, and real itwXhyparamdrthasatya.^
The world appears to be real, but the appearance is an
illusion, as empty as a dream ; yet we must live in it and in
practice take it as real. The actual truth, that all thii^s are
empty, seems to us to be folly, but it is the final truth of the
» Wintemitz, II. i. 250-4; ERE. IV. 838; VIII. 235, 336.
' Poussin, Opinions y 189 ;i. i.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 117
world; and when we rise to the wisdom of the Buddhas, we
shall see its truth. Thus we need not hope to find the truth
by intellectual activity, but must strive to hear the silence
which is neither affirmation nor denial. Thus the Madhya-
vnaksL philosopher has no system ; he has only a method.
The doctrine is thus a guarded nihilism, a faith in the empti-
ness of all things which does not profess to see the truth of
what it believes, but holds hard by its faith, while it frankly
lives on that which it declares to be illusion. The early
Prajnd texts, and a number of other works are said to be by
Nagarjuna. An extraordinary mass of legends gathered
round his head.
b. The Paradise Mahdydna,
§ I %^, The second type of Mahayana doctrine is of a much
simpler nature and maybe described as the Paradise Maha-
yana.* It does not trouble to teach the doctrine of Vacuity,
nor does it impose on its followers the long ages of discipline
which are required for the career of the Bodhisattva. Every
person may easily make certain of being born in his next
birth rn the Western Paradise, where under the fostering ciare
of a great Buddha named Amitabha^he will live for ever in
joy and will reach final perfection. One of the chief texts
of this school, the longer Sukhdvatlvyuha^ or * Description
of the Land of Bliss', was translated into Chinese before
A.D. 170, and thus belongs to our period. In this book we
hear of many hundred thousands of millions of Buddhas, and
amongst them of one named Amitabha, * measureless light \
who lives and reigns in SukhavatI, a Paradise of glory and
bliss far away to the West, beyond the limits of the world
where Gautama lives. When this new Buddha was but
a monk, he vowed and toiled for this Western Paradise, and
prayed that he might never obtain the highest perfect know-
ledge, unless it should be possible for all creatures to be
born in that Land of Bliss and there reach perfection, wisdom,
> Poussin, ERE. VIII. 331 b. ^ Nanjio, col. 381 ; SBE. xlix.
ii8 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
perfect joy, and release. All has now been realized. Amitabha
reigns in the wonderful land of bliss, and whoever struggles
forward, seeking to make good karma, praying faithfully,
worshipping Amitabha with deep devotional feeling, and
uttering his name, will be born in that Western Paradise and
will live in bliss for ever. A very large part of the book is
given to descriptions of the beauties and pleasures of
Sukhavati.
Of the numerous Mahayana texts translated into Chinese
during the second century ^ a number of works, in addition
to the longer Sukhdvatlvyuha^ seem to belong to the Paradise
school,^ but the mass undoubtedly derive from the chief
school.
C. Buddhism in China,
§ 130. Buddhism does not seem to have made rapid progress
in China for some two or three centuries ; yet it is clear that
large efforts were made to win the people. Some reflection
of the activities of the Missionaries may be found in the long
lists of translations carried out during the two centuries under
review.^ Most of the sutras selected for translation are quite
short, and deal with the simpler elements of Buddhist teaching
or with practical questions touching life and discipline. They
are taken from Mahayana as well as from Hinayana sources,
the first text translated, The Sutra of Forty-two Sections^
being a compendium of Buddhist teaching drawn from many
books. There are only four noteworthy translators during
the period, and their extraction is significant ; two of them,
Kasyapa Matanga and Lokaraksha,^ were Indians, An Shi-
Kao was a Parthian prince, while Ch'Yao was probably
a Kushan.
* Nanjio, nos. 5, 25, 28, 33, 51, 54, 57, 73, 76, 102, 112, 161, 174, 202,
260, 282, 289, 381, 385-7, 431, 435, 478, i<^93, 1326, 1331, 1337, 1338,
1360, 1361, 1368. * Nanjio, nos. 25, 28, 33, 51, 54, 57.
^ Nanjio, cols. 379-85. * Nanjio, no. 678.
' This man seems to have translated only Mahayana works : Nanjio,
col. 381.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM 119
lil. JAINISM.
§ 131. The history of Jainism remains extremley obscure
throughout this period, yet a few facts of large importance
can be discerned.
During the two* centuries before our era, and probably in
still earlier years, the religion expanded steadily both in the
north and in the south. Sculptured remains and an inscription
found at Muttra, the ancient Mathura, and assigned to the
first century B.c.,^ reveal to us the growth of Jainism to the
north-west; caves with fragments of sculptured frieze in
Orissa may date from about the same time ; ^ while the
powerful influence which Jainism exerted on Tamil literature
from the second century after Christ, if not from an earlier
date, shows that the religion had achieved considerable
success in the far south. From the Christian era onwards,
if not earlier, Jainism spread into Gujarat ; and from the third
century the community produced a large popular literature
in the vernacular of that part of India.
§ 13a. As a result of the long-standing difference of opinion
within the community, the Jains at last broke into two sects,
Svetambaras and Digambaras, about A.D. 80^; so that for
the full understanding of the history it is necessary as far as
possible to distinguish the writers, books, and practices of the
two organizations from this time onward. The main difference
between them is the single point, that the Svetambaras hold that
monks ought to wear white garments, while Digambaras hold
that they ought to give up all clothing. Necessarily nuns are
found only among the Svetambaras. The Digambaras explain
that women cannot win release until a good life has brought
them the privilege of being born as men ; so that they need
not become ascetics. There are other minor divergences.
The great mass of Jains to the north of the Vindhyas were
Svetambaras, while in the Kanarese and Tamil districts they
were nearly all Digambaras.
* V. Smith, HFA, 82; 144; Indraji, Vlth Oriental Congress, 143.
» V. Smith, HFA. 84. ' Jacobi, ERE, VII. 473-
I20 THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM
§ ^33' Jain worship is precisely parallel to Buddhist worship
during these centuries. They use stupas, as the Buddhists
do, and the forms of their sculpture are similar, although the
art is not so good. The remains, though slight, are sufficient
to show the intense religious emotions of tbe Jain community
and the deep devotional feeling with which they thought of
their Tirthakaras.^ The inscription at Muttra shows that
Jains already used temples in the .first century B.C., and at
rather later dates there is evidence that they had begun to use
images. These changes are very closely contemporaneous to
the corresponding movements in Buddhism.
§134. It is impossible to say how much of their early
literature was still retained in the memories of Jain ascetics
during these centuries, nor how far the formation of the
Aiigas, now preserved in the Svetambara Canon, had gone,
Weber believed that the gradual process of creating the
present Angas began in the second century A.D,, but it is
more probable that portions of the ancient literature have
been preserved, though doubtless from the time of the Schism,
about A. D. 80, a process of revision in the interest of the sect
was carried out by Svetambara monks. Numerous traditions
refer certain of these canonical works or comments on them
to writers believed to have lived during this period — to
Ajjasama, to Kalakacharya, to Virabhadra — but everything
is confused and obscure. As research proceeds, a measure of
light will doubtless be thrown on the history.
§ 135. In a sixteenth-century Digambara work, the Tattv-
drthasdradlpikd of Sakalakirti,^ it is stated that from very
early times the Digambaras had a large Canon, handed down
orally, but that it was gradually forgotten, until in the second
century A.D. it had all been lost. A list of the books is
given,^ divided into three groups, Angas, Piirvas, and Ahga-
* The Jains use the word Tirthakara, precisely as the Buddhists use
Buddha, for an omniscient teacher, and they have a long list of them
stretching away far back from Mahavira, just like the list of the Previous
Buddhas. ^ See § 440.
' Bhandarkar, Report, 83-4, p. 106 f ; Jaini, OJ, 135.
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS THEISM lai
bdhyas, A large proportion of the names correspond with
books of the Svetambara list, but there are differences.
§ 136, There is also an obscure tradition ^ that Pushpadanta
and Bhutavalya reduced the Canon to writing in the second
century A.D., but as these two are the very men who are
mentioned as having been the last that knew one Anga orally,
and with whom all knowledge of the sacred literature died, it
looks as if the tradition had been invented at a late date to
give the Digambaras the kudos of having once possessed a
written canon like the Svetambaras. The truth seems to be
rather this, that during the time when the differences between
the two sects were becoming more sharply defined, the
Digambaras took so little interest in the sacred books that
the Svetambaras were able to manipulate them in their own
interest. The Canon bears clear traces of this process of
Svetambara redaction. If this be the truth, we can have no
difficulty in understanding why the Digambaras * lost ' the
Canon. The traditional date for the loss, the second century
A.D., just gives time for the process after the schism.
§ 137. The vernacular of the far south, known as Tamil,
developed a varied literature at a very early date, and both
Buddhists and Jains took part in the movement. Some of
the most famous of early Tamil works are said to be of Jain
origin, but they are not distinctively Jain works but belong
rather to general literature. No work holds a higher place
among the classics of the South than the sacred Kural^ a
poem consisting of 2,660 short couplets, dealing with virtue,
wealth, and pleasure. It forms one of a group of eighteen
didactic poems, five or six of which are by Jains. There are
also two romances in verse, the Manimekhalai and the Silapp-
adhikaram, both noted for their simple and elegant style,
which are believed to have been written by Jains.'^
* Bhandarkar, Report^ 83-4, p. 125. '^ BMCTB. 2, 4.
CHAPTER IV
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS.
A.D. 300 TO 550.
§ 138. Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains all sought during this
period to give the best possible expression to their philoso-
phies. The foundation texts of the six Hindu systems, of
Jain philosophy, and of Vijiianavada Buddhism were all
written now, and numerous commentaries, most of which
have been lost, were produced for their elucidation, Hindu
sects are now far more numerous than formerly. Each has
its own theology, in which its god is identified with the
Brahman of the Upanishads ; and each seeks to popularize
its teaching and its cult by means of an interesting Puranic
document.
The history of India during the third century is a blank,
but in A. D. 320 the family of the Guptas arose, and soon
created an empire which recalled the glory of the old Mauryas,
and gave North India a century and a half of strong, en-
lightened government. The peace and prosperity of these
years provided the conditions in which religious literature and
culture could do their best. It was then that the philosophic
texts already mentioned, the early Puranas and a great series
of Buddhist Mahayana Sutras were written.
Probably at some time during this period the Syrian
Christian Church of Malabar came into existence.
i. Hinduism.
A. The Philosophies*
§ 139. We take the philosophies first, as they are probably
the healthiest and most abiding elements of the religion of
the time. Their interest to us lies in this, that the classic
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 123
m
treatises, which form the foundation of study in all the six
orthodox systems, appeared at this time. It is evident that
each of these works is built on earlier systematic treatises,
and is the result of centuries of thinking. But all earlier
manuals are lost, having been rendered obsolete by the greater
power, accuracy, and finish of these classic works.
No definite date can yet be assigned for any one of these
six books : we must be content to recognize that they arose
within certain rather wide limits.^ Yet the following points
seem clear : (a) They were edited with reference to each
other. There are so many cross-references from each to the
others that scholars are satisfied that all six arose in a single
period. At the time there must have been a great deal of
public discussion, in the course of which the characteristic
conceptions of each system were chiselled to the utmost
perfection of form, (b) All six are clearly later than the
didactic epic and Nagarjuna. On the other hand, the lowest
possible limit seems to be A.D. 450 ; for the oldest surviving
commentary ^ comes from about that date. A. D. aoo to 450
would thus seem to be the extremest limits that can be
allowed. (c) The wealth and intellectual activity of the
Gupta Empire would provide the natural atmosphere and
environment for the mutual intercourse and public discussion
which lie behind the books, (d) Scholars are now inclined
to believe, on the basis of Chinese evidence, that the author
of the Sdhkhya Kdrikd flourished about the beginning of the
fourth century.^ Asanga, the exponent of the Vijiianavadin
school of Buddhism, which in all probability is the idealistic
system attacked in the Yoga-sutras^ lived about the same
time. Thus two out of the six treatises would stand related
to the first half of the fourth century, (e) If, then, all six were
edited with reference to each other, there would seem to be
* For this whole problem see Jacobi, JAOS. XXXI. i flf. ; Suali, EL;
Yitixh.JRAS, 1914, 1089; 1915, 53^.
' Vatsyayana's Nydya-bhdshya. Sabara-svamin's Mtmdmsd-bhdshya is
probably as early.
' See § 146.
124 PHILOSOPHIES AND SFXTS
a number of lines of evidence converging to the fourth century
as the most probable period for their emergence.
§ 140. The form of these books is very strange at first sight
to the Western student. Five of them are sutras, and one
consists of memorial verses, karikas. No single document
by itself provides anything like a clear, comprehensible
account of the philosophy which it represents.^ The system
was expounded by the teacher ; and the sutra or the karika
was little more than an index of topics which, committed to
memory, enabled the student to carry the instructions of his
teacher in his mind.
But the two manuals which we deal with first are much
more difficult to understand than the others. In them scarcely
one single sutra is intelligible- without a commentary .^ The
method of reasoning^ also employed in these manuals is
always elaborate and difficult, and sometimes obscure.
§ 141. There are six systems which are recognized as
orthodox. Each is called a dar^ana, or view, because it
embodies a way of looking at the world. They fall into three
pairs, and are so arranged because of a close connexion
between the pairs. The first pair depend definitely on the
Vedas, while in the case of each of the other two pairs, the
second philosophy adopted the metaphysics of the first.
The first pair of systems fundamentally are not philosophies,
but merely systematic expositions of the two main parts of
the Veda. Each is called mtmdmsd^ which means investiga-
tion, exegesis. The Former Investigation, Purva Mimamsa,
deals with the sacrificial part of the Veda, and the Later
Investigation, Uttara Mimamsa, deals with the Upanishads.
These two, then, really form the systematic theology of
Hinduism. Since, however, the Upanishads are philosophic
works, the Uttara Mimamsa stands in the closest possible
relation with the whole- history of philosophy in India. The
* See Yitxih.JRAS. 1916, 613.
2 See Thibaut, SBE, XXXIV. xiii.
^ It is explained by Max Miiller, SS. 203-4.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 125
words Former and Later, as applied to these two mimaiheas,
do not refer to the historical appearance of these systems, far
less to the dates of the Sutras, but to their place in study and
in the life of the pious Hindu.
a. T/ie Karma Mlmdmsd.
§ 14a. The purpose of the Purva Mimamsa, which is also
called Karma Mimamsa, i.e. Action Investigation, is to reach
certainty on the subject of dharmay i.e. the whole religious
duty of Hindus, but as a matter of fact sacrifice receives so
much attention as almost to eclipse other elements of duty.
All necessary instructions are given in the hymns and the
Brahmanas, but these are not systematic works, and in using
them for the sacrifices priests met numerous difficulties. The
Mimamsa was meant to solve these problems by providing
principles which should "prove sufficient as guidance in the
interpretation of the Vedic texts.
Most of the sutras of Jaimini's Purva-mtmdmsd'Sutras are
expositions of single texts or phrases, and are • thus of little
interest to the modern reader, but here and there great
questions arise which are worthy of notice. For example,
the absolute authority of the Veda requires for its establish-
ment the doctrine of its eternity, and that leads in turn to the
doctrine of the eternity of sound and the indefeasible con-
nexion between the sound of a word and its meaning,^
As the Veda contains many promises of rewards for those
who perform the actions enjoined therein, and as these results
are not seen arising at once from the actions, it seemed
necessary to believe that sacrifice produces an invisible, trans-
cendental result (apurva), which will in time provide the
promised fruit.
The Purva Mimamsa does not teach a philosophical
system, yet certain metaphysical ideas are implied or find
incidental expression in it. The existence of God is denied
* See ERE. VIII. 648.
17,6 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
on the ground that an omniscient being is inconceivable ;
a realistic conception of the world is implied ; the eternity of
the world is stated in such terms as practically to preclude
the belief in the periodic destruction and re-creation of all
things ; and the law of Karma is held so rigidly that it
scarcely seems possible to believe in release from transmigra-
tion ; and certainly the doctrine does not occur.^
The system came into existence to help the Vedic sacrificer
and the priests who acted for him ; and it remains to this
day the guide of orthodox householders of the twice-born
castes. Hence, unlike the Vedanta, the Sankhya, and the
Yoga, it does not teach asceticism, and has never had ascetics
associated with it.
b. TAa Uttara Mlmdmsd or Vedanta.
§ 143. The manual of the Uttara Mimamsa, or Later Investi-
gation, is usually called the Veddnta-sutras. Brahnta^siUras
and Sdrlraka-sutras are also used, because the subject is
Brahman, who is recognized as being the Sarlraka, or spirit
* embodied ' in the universe. The work is attributed to
Badarayana, but the character of the work itself shows that
a long succession of scholars stand behind the author, and the
names of seven of these occur in the sutras.* .
The work is a manual of exegetics for students of the Classical
Upanishads, and is based on the belief that these treatises are
in the fullest sense Revelation, and therefore contain a har-
monious body of truth. As a matter of fact, although the
Upanishads all set forth Brahman, one, spiritual, unknowable,
as the b£isis of all things, they teach no settled system, but
fling out guesses at truth from various standpoints. Neces-
sarily, the effort to view the whole as an articulated body of
clearly expressed ideas creates numerous difficulties. In so
far as the obscurity of the sutras permits us to judge, it would
* For these very early ideas see § 37.
^ Thibaut, SBE. XXXIV. xix.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 117
seem that the following outlines of a system are taught in
the work :
Brahman is one and formless, and consists of intelligence.
He is the source of scripture {iruti) and is therefore omniscient ;
and he is to be known only from scripture. He is the material
as well as the final cause of the universe. He has no purpose to
fulfil, and is therefore inactive : his seeming activity is sport.
The world, though produced from Brahman from time to time,
has had no beginning and will have no end. Scripture also
is eternal. The gods exist, and they feed in their own divine
way on the sacrifices which the Veda enjoins.
The individual soul is eternal, intelligent, all-pervading. It
is a portion of Brahman ; it is Brahman. Its individuality is
but an appearance. Sacrificial works help a man to rise to
knowledge of Brahman, but it is knowledge alone that confers
release. The life of chastity and meditation on Brahman, as
taught in scripture, is the path to knowledge. From Brahman
comes the fruit of works, and therefore transmigration ; from
him comes also release.
§ 144. At a very early date the Veddnta-sutras became
revered as an inspired work, and it has since been held by
almost all Hindus to be infallible. Yet in spite of that, since
no commentary by its author has come down to us, the exact
meaning of its enigmatical phrases is in many cases far
from clear, and many variant expositions have been formu-
lated by Hindu thinkers. These scholars fall in the main
into two groups, those, on the one hand, who follow Sahkara-
charya (a.d. 788-850) in taking the identity of the individual
soul with God in the strictest possible sense, and in accepting
a monism so absolute that the material world is regarded as
pure illusion, and the personality of God tends to be crushed
out, and those, on the other, who, because they believe
Brahman to be personal, regard the world as more or less
real and the human soul as more or less distinct from him.
The chief representative of this group is Ramanuja, who
flourished about 11 00. *
I2S PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
Thibaut discusses in considerable detail the question whether
Sankara or Ramanuja comes nearest the teaching of the
sutras and reaches the conclusion ^ that, while the kind of
Vedanta represented in the Veddnta-sutras must be left an
open question, there is reason to suppose that in some
important points their teaching is more closely related to
the system of Ramanuja than to that of Sankara.^ On
the other hand, he is inclined to believe that the teaching
of Sankara stands nearer to the teaching of the Upanishads
than the Sutras of Badarayana do ; and he explains this
striking fact by the supposition that the teaching of the Sutras
was influenced in some degree by the Bhagavadgttd?
For many centuries the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgttd and
the Veddnta-sutras have been recognized as the Prasthdna-
traya^ the Triple Source, of the Vedanta philosophy. It seems
probable that in Badarayana's day the Gltd had already risen
to great authority, even if it had not yet received its destined
place in the Canon^ of the school. Being thus placed practi-
cally on a level with the Upanishads, the Gltd necessarily
became recognized as absolutely orthodox.*
§ 145. It is of interest to realize that three of the distinct
theories of the relation of the individual soul to Brahman
which were afterwards embodied in commentaries on these
sutras had already received expression by Vedantic scholars
before the time of Badarayana. According to A^marathya,
the soul is neither absolutely different from God nor absolutely
without difference ; i. e. he held the theory called Bhedabheda ;
according to Aiidulomi the soul is altogether different from
Brahman up to the time when, obtaining release, it is merged
in it ; i. e, he held the Satyabheda, or Dvaita, theoiy ; while
according to Ka^akritsna the soul is absolutely non-different
from Brahman, i. e, he held the Advaita theory,*
From the date of the earliest Upanishads until now there
* SBE. XXXIV. cxxvi f. « Cf. Keith, SS. 6, 52.
' SBE, XXXIV. cxxvi. * Foj: its original heterodoxy, sec § 94.
» SBE. XXXIV. xix.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 129
has existed the great order of sannyasis who seek to follow
this teaching- They are still the most numerous and the
most highly respectfed order of monks in India. There are
also a few nuns?
c. The Sdnkhya.
§ 146. The primary authority for the Sankhya system is
Xh^^Sdnkhya-kdrikdy^, poem consisting originally of seventy
verses and attributed to Isvara Krishna. It seems clear from
Chinese authorities that this writer was also known as Vindhya-
vasin, and that he was a little senior to Vasubandhu, the
famous Buddhist scholar.^ Until recently it was believed
that Vasubandhu's date was the first half of the fifth century,
but fresh evidence which has become available has led most
scholars to conclude that he lived from about A.D. 270 to 350.^
If that be so, we must place Isvara Krishna towards the
b^inning of the fourth century.*
According to tradition, the Sdhkhya-kdrikd is really the
Shashtitantra rewritten, which, as we have seen above,^ was
a manual of the theistic Sankhya. The contents of the Shashtu
tantra as sketched in the Ahirbudhnya Samhitd^ seem to
justify this tradition.
The poem is an excellent piece of work. Unlike the obscure
sutras of the two mimamsas, its verses are each quite compre-
hensible, although it would undoubtedly be extremely difficult
for a beginner to form an intelligible conception of the system
from the treatise by itself.
It is well to recognize that with the Sankhya we enter upon
rationalistic speculation. It is held to be throughout consistent
with scripture (iruti)^ but it is clear on the very surface that
the leading ideas have been evolved not from Vedic texts but
from observation and^speculative thought. The appeal to
* See esp. Keith, SS, chap. vii. ' JRAS, 1905, 162; 355.
' BEFEO. xi, 356 ff.; Thomas, //?^ 5. 1913, 646; 1031; 1914, 748;
Yr^^VsyJRAS, 1914, 398 if.; Takakusu, ib. 113 ; Keith, SS, 87.
* Keith, 55. 43 ; 57; 63.
» § 99. « Schrader, I PAS. iioff.
K
I30 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
scripture is more formal than real ; yet the system has in con-
sequence been recognized as orthodox, and therefore superior
not only to Buddhism and Jainism but to the sectarian systems.
§ 147. The end in view ^ is the removal of misery, and the
means is true knowledge. Three kinds of evidence are avail-
able, perception, inference, and right affirmation (which includes
scripture). The system is an atheistic dualism : there are two
eternal existences, original nature (prakritt)^ and spirits
(puruska). Prakriti is one, unconscious, productive; spirits
are many, conscious, inactive, each a solitary, passive spectator
of the operations of nature. It is implied that spirits trans-
migrate and suffer misery, Prakriti is the universal material
cause, unconscious, homogeneous, invisible, impalpable, know-
' able only from its products. Professor Keith writes : ^
The essential conception is that from unconscious nature there is
developed for the sake of spirit a whole universe, that the development
takes place for each individual spirit separately, but yet at the same time
in such a manner that nature and its evolutes are common to all spirits.
Prakriti and all its products possess the three constituents,
goodness (sattva), energy (rajas) ^ and darkness (tamas), but
while they are in equilibrium in prakriti, they appear in its
products in variant balance. From prakriti issues Intellect
{buddhi) called also the Great (mahat)^ a subtle cosmic sub-
stance, which constitutes in the individual his organ of thought
and decision. From Intellect is produced Egoism or Individua-
tion {akamkdra)y a subtle cosmic substance which marks every
psychical movement with the word * mine * and makes each
spirit imagine itself an active human individual. From Egoism
is produced Mind (manas), a subtle cosmic substance which
enables the individual to apprehend and pass on to the intellect
the impressions of things received by the senses, and to carry
out the decisions of the intellect by means of the active organs.
From Egoism there are also produced the five organs of sense,
^ Keith {SS, Chap, vii) gives a brilliant exposition and criticism of
the system of the Kdrikd,
2 6'5. ^%,
^PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 131
the five organs of action, and five subtle elements, or rudiments
{tantndtras)^ which in turn produce the five material elements.
Prakriti, with its three first products and these four fives,
make twenty-four principles, and spirit makes the twenty-fifth.
The spirit, intelligent but inactive, is united with nature,
unconscious but active, like a lame man carried on a blind
man's back, and, misled by the operations of Egoism, imagines
himself an active individual, thinking, feeling, willing, acting,
while he is but an inactive spectator of the unconscious and
inevitable processes of nature. Yet nature is produced, so
that she may display herself like a dancer, and so give the
individual spirit an opportunity to realize the truth that he is
not bound by nature, but is a free, inactive spirit. By repeated
reflective study of these principles the follower of the Sankhya
reaches the knowledge, * Neither I am, nor is aught mine, nor
do I exist.' Possessed of this knowledge, the purusha in
peace and inaction contemplates nature, which is thereby
precluded from her activity, and the purusha at death attains
its true life of Isolation {kaivalyd).
§ 148. It seems clear that this complicated system was
evolved from a number of early conceptions in the Upani-
shads.^ It has in turn deeply influenced every form of Indian
thought.
The Sankhya offers the knowledge which leads to Kaivalya
to, Sudras as well as to twice-born Hindus. It thus stands
between the Vedanta, which is restricted to the twice-born,
and the Yoga, which is open to all. There has existed since
the early centuries an order of Sankhya sannyasis, but there
are few, if any, left now.
d. The Yoga.
§ 149. The manual of the Yoga system, the Yoga-sutray is
attributed to Pataiijali, and for centuries it was held that the
reference was to the grammarian of the second century B.C.,
and consequently the Yoga-sutra was believed by European
* So Keith, SS. Chap, i, and 87.
K %
132 PHILOSOPHIES AND SFXTS
scholars to be the earliest of the philosophic manuals. But
since the sutra shows a more developed system than anything
that appears in the epic or .in the Yoga Upanishads, and since
the Vijiianavada of Buddhism is criticized in it,^ it is now
recognized that the author must have been another Patanjali,
and that his date cannot be earlier than the middle of the
fourth century A.D. It is probable that the writing of the
Sdhkhya-kdrikd and its great success led to the production of
the Yoga-sutra? The rise of the Vijiianavadin, or Yogachara,^
system within Buddhism, about A.D. 300, would also be a
challenge ; for Yoga holds a large place in it.
The Yoga system accepts the twenty-five principles of the
Sankhya and adds to them the Lord [livgrd)^ thus raising the
number to twenty-six. But the interest of the Yoga centres,
not in the understanding of these principles, but in the practice
of the method of yoga and in devotion to the Lord, which it
sets forth as the most efficient means for the attainment of the
Isolation {kaivalya) of the soul (purusha or dtntan).
The Lord of the Yoga-sutras is attached rather loosely to
the main conceptions of the system.* He is a special kind of
soul {puruska-viseska)^ omniscient, eternal, perfect, untouched
by karma, transmigration, or human weakness. He is the
teacher of the Primal Sages; and he helps the man who
shows him devotion to reach the concentration which leads
to Isolation, but he is not called the Creator nor otherwise
related to world-processes. He is expressed by the mystic
syllable, Ont.
Yoga-method seeks to gain complete mastery over the
movements of the mind, first by means of moral abstentions,
ascetic observances, and exercises both physical and mental,
and then by fixed attention and deepening meditation, which
lead on to ecstatic contemplation and the final discrimination
between soul and nature, which secures Isolation.
■
» Hopkins,/^ 6^6-. XXII b., 335, 336; Woods, Yoga, XVflF.; Keith,
SS, S7' ' Keith, SS. 57.
M 178. * Keith, SS. 56.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 133
In Its earlier stages the school of Yoga was open to all
Hindus, and even to Outcastes,^ precisely like Buddhism and
Jainism. Yoga ascetics are called Yogis.
e. The Vaiseshika,
§ 150. As we have seen above, the Vai^eshika system already
existed in the first century A. D., and it may be still older.
The classic treatise, the Vaiseshika-sutraSy is attributed to
Kanada Ka^yapa. The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya systems
apparently grew up side by side, and the two sutra manuals
seem to have been edited with close reference to each other.^
The Vaiseshika is an atomistic realism. Nine classes of
ultfmate realities, dravyas^ are recognized. There are first
four classes of paramaniis, i.e. minima, or atoms. Each para-
manu is a changeless, eternal reality, yet invisible and without
magnitude. The minima fall into four classes, according as
they possess odour, flavour, light, or heat, which are regarded
as characteristics of earth, water, air, and fire respectively.
Two minima form a dyanuka, or binary atom, and a combina-
tion of three dyanukas forms a tryanuka, the smallest entity
that possesses magnitude and may be termed a substance.
The fifth ultimate reality, dkdsa, usually translated * ether *, is
an indiscrete and all-pervading continuum, conceived as the
medium necessary for the formation of substances from the
unsubstantial minima. The sixth reality, kdla (lit. * time ')
stands for the force which produces all activity, movement, and
change, and thus gives the basis for the perception of time-
diflferences. The seventh reality, dik (i. e. direction or position) ,
acts so as to balance kdla, keeping things in position and pre-
venting their dissolution amid the welter of change. The
eighth reality is an infinite number of dtnians, the old Vedantic
word for the self or soul. Each atman is eternal, infinite, all-
pervading. The ninth ultimate is manas, the organ through
which the atman comes into touch with the impressions of the
senses. Like the paramanus, each manas is eternal and without
> Hopkins, GE, 114. '^ Keith, //?^5. 1914, p. 1085.
134 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
magnitude. Like the Karma Mimamsa and the Sankhya, the
original Vaifeshika recognizes the Hindu gods but not the
one God,
The sutras name six padarthas, categories or classes of
things that can be named, dravya (entity, existence), guna
(quality), karma (action), sdmdnya (the relation of a thing to
its genus), visesha (differentia), and samavdya (inherence). The
knowledge of these categories brings release.
f. The Nydya.
§ 151. The Nyaya system, which can be traced from the
first century, has adopted the Vaii^eshika metaphysic, and thus
stands related to that system in much the same way as the
Yoga stands to the Sankhya; but, as sulFficient evidence to
enable us to trace the early history of the Nyaya has not
come down, we cannot tell how it came into existence. As
the special interest of the Nyaya is to prove the truths which
lead to bliss and deliverance, one might conjecture that the
system was formed* by combining the method of an early
school of dialectic with the Vai^eshika metaphysic, or, as an
alternative, that two schools seeking deliverance grew up side
by side, the one seeking saving knowledge in an accurate
scientific account of all things, the other feeling the necessity
of presenting a demonstrative proof of the truth of the main
positions which were held to be necessary for deliverance, and
that, after the elaboration of the proofs, the metaphysic of
the scientific school was adopted to complete the world-view.
There is one further difference to be noted. Like the Yoga,
the Nyaya posits a Lord (Isvara)^ and is thus theistic, but in
the sutra he is referred to only as administering the fruits of
action. The fundamental document is Gautama's Nydya-sutra.
The sutra enumerates sixteen topics. They are, i. Proof,
%. Things to be proved, 3. Doubt, 4. Motive, 5. Example,
6, Conclusion, 7. The members of a syllogism, 8. Reductio ad
absurdum, 9. Ascertainment, 10. Thesis, 11. Sophistical
wTangling, la. Cavilling, 13. Fallacious reasoning, 14. Futility,
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 135
15. Quibbling, 16. Talk that is beaide the point. These
subjects of discussion show where the centre of interest h'es in
the philosophy. In the course of its reasonings the Nyaya
developed thej logic ; of India.
§ 15^^. In both tlie Nyaya and the Vai^eshika the conception
of the soul {dtntan) is much richer and fuller than in other
systems. Its functions are Involuntary vital action, Voluntary
action, Desire, Aversion, Cognition, and Control of the organs
of sense and of the manas or inner organ.
These two schools seem to have sprung up among the
orthodox twice-born householders; for neither demands
asceticism, nor have ascetics been associated with them.
It is very noteworthy that the Vai^eshika was certainly
atheistic to begin with, and the Nyaya may have been so also.
Thus the ancient Hindu mind, which acknowledged all the
gods but not the Supreme, lingered long among the twice-
born. But gradually a belief in God won its way. From
a very early date the Nyaya became theistic, and the Vai^e-
shika followed later. The Nyaya is to this day professed by
considerable numbers of orthodox Brahmans in Bengal ; while
the VaiiSeshika seems to have been associated with Pa^upata
Saivism from the moment when it recognized the existence of
the Supreme.
§ 153. It is probable, though not certain, that each of the
classical treatises was accompanied by a commentary prepared
by the author ; but unfortunately, if these existed, no single
one of them has survived. Of all existing commentaries on
the six manuals, only two seem to belong to our period,
namely, Sabara Svamin's Bhdshya on the Purva-mimdmsd-
sutraSy and Vatsyayana's Nyaya Bhdshya, Jacobi conjectures ^
that both these works belong to the fifth century. It seems
clear that Vatsyayana's Bhdshya at least falls within the limits
of our period ; for he comes before Dignaga,^ the Buddhist
writer, whose date is about A.D. 550,^ while the archaic
» JAOS. XXXI. 24; ERE, II. 201.
* Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 86. ^ Woods, Yoga^ xix.
136 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
/
character of Sahara's work is sufficient to justify our inclusion
of it within the same limits.
The philosophies of Buddhism and Jainism are discussed
elsewhere, but it may be useful to note here that the four
Buddhist philosophical systems, Sarvastivadin, Sautrantika,
Madhyamaka, Vijiianavadin, are combated in these Hindu
manuals, and that the classic treatise of the Vijilanavadins was
probably written about the same time as the Sdhkhya Kdrikd ;
>yhile Umasvati also, whose Tattvarthadhigama-sutra is the
fountain head of Jain philosophy, seems to have lived under
the Guptas.^
B. The Purdnas,
m
§ 154. It would be difficult to exaggerate the popularity and
importance of the religious poems known as Puranas. They
are very widely used among the common people, both in the
original and in numerous vernacular versions and adaptations.
Indeed the epics and the Puranas are the real Bible of the
common people, whether literate or illiterate, and they are the
source of half the vernacular literature. On the other hand,
the Puranas are of little intrinsic interest as compared with
the Vedas, or the philosophic or classical literature ; and hence
they have been largely neglected by serious students. Wilson's
essays laid the foundations for critical study, but little has
been done since his time. It is thus impossible at present to
give a trustworthy chronology of these poems, or to explain
how each arose ; yet something may be said to enable readers
to grasp the significance of the more important sections of the
literature.
Puranas are referred to in Vedic literature from the Athar-
vaveda downwards; quotations occur in the Dharmasutras,
and in the Epics ; while there are definite references to
the Bhavishya P. in the Apastamba Dharmasutra and to the
Vdyti P. in the Mahdbhdrata. A passage in the Padma P. is
copied in the Mahdbhdrata^ Yet even the earliest existing
1 See § 185. « Hopkins, GE, 47-50.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 137
Puranas come from later dates. They contain sections and
fragments belonging to early centuries, but as works they are
late.
§ ^55* The Puranas are a second type of popular literature,
written in the same verse and open to the people with the
same completeness as the epics ; but they had a different
origin. The word {Jurana means ancient, but as a name in
literature it signifies not an ancient book but an ancient
subject, Archaica. Indeed, originally a Purana would seem to
have been a book of origins, a sort of Hindu Genesis. The
tradition is that a Purana has five marks, i. e. it contains
teaching on five distinct topics, as follows :
L Creation.
II. Re-creation, i.e. at the opening of each kalpa, with
a description of the Universe, Heaven, Hell, and earth.
III. Genealogies of gods and rishis, and an account ofr the
origin of the Veda.
IV. The ages of the world and their regents.
V. Genealogies of kings.
This shows that a Purana was conceived as a book of
origins ; and to this day the Puranas are the source of popular
conceptions of creation, time, the universe, the earth, geography,
and early history. We shall use the word * cosmic ' to describe
this type of teaching as a whole, although considerable
sections are rather legendary and historical than cosmic.
Some very old material, belonging to this category, occurs in
two or three of the earliest of our existing Puranas, whence it
has been copied, with or without alteration, into most of the
others. It can be most conveniently studied in the Vishnu.
Further, in the genealogies of kings in the VdyUy Brahmdnda^
and Matsya^ there is material which has proved to be of
historical value. As the latest kings named in these documents
belong to the first half of the fourth century, the documents
presumably are not much later.
§ 156. But, like the epics, the Puranas were used by the
sects as vehicles of sectarian teaching. Each sect and sub-sect
i:^« PMILOSOPHIKS AND SECTS
sought to foist its own documents upon some popular Purana,
so that they might find their way into the hands and hearts of
the people. The process seems to have begun, as in the epic,
with Krishna. It was quite natural to append his biography
to the genealogies of the ancient kings, as is done in the Hari-
vafhsa and the Vishnu P. Thereafter, sectarian documents
of many types found their way into the t^uranas. As in the
epic, the Vaishnavas here took the lion's share, but the
Saivas did not fall far behind them, while other sects had to
be content with slighter support.
Scholars are inclined to believe that the earliest of the
existing Puranas took shape under the Guptas in the fourth,
fifth, and sixth centuries, although all have probably undeigone
more or less modification since then ; ^ and it is probably true
that every existing Purana owes its present form and its
survival to some sect. Thus we take the golden age of the
Guptas as the dividing line. In earlier times there existed
real old Puranas dealing with origins. They were meant for
the whole people, and were a genuine national literature.
But only fragments of these * cosmic ' Puranas survive. All
existing Puranas come from the Gupta period or from later
dates. Further, the Puranas have suffered so much from re-
writing and interpolation that they cannot be treated like
homogeneous texts. The date of each section must be con-
sidered by itself, and in most cases internal evidence alone is
available. Most of the results must thus be treated as very
tentative.
§ 157. From quite an early time the Puranas have been
spoken of as eighteen in number ; for the phrase, * the eighteen
Puranas ' occurs in a very late passage in the Mahdbhdrata?
What this early canon was like, we have no means of knowing,
but it may possibly have included a few of the existing
Puranas ; for the passage referred to is probably not earlier
^ Pargiter, //?yi5. 1912, 248; Fleet, ib. 1912, 1046; Keith, ib. 1914,
740; 1915, 331.
« XVI II. V. 46; vi. 97; Hopkins, GE. 48.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 139
than the fourth century. But the actual number of existing
works recognized as Puranas is twenty ; for the Hartvamia^
which forms the conclusion of the Mahdbhdrata, is one of the
earliest and greatest of the Puranas, and must be reckoned as
such ; and both the ^iva and the Vdyu^ one of which is usually
excluded from the list, ought to be included. There are
besides many secondary documents, known as Upapuranas.
The twenty recognized works are the following eighteen, as
found in the list in the Vishnu : i. Brahma, %, Padma,
3. Vishnu, 4. Siva, 5. Bhagavata, 6. Naradlya, 7. Markandeya,
8. Agni, 9. Bhavishya, 10. Brahmavaivarta, 11. Lihga, \i.
Varaha, 13. Skanda, 14. Vamana, 15. Kurma, 16. Matsya,
17. Garuda, 18. Brahmanda — with the Harivam^a and the
Vayu added.
§ 158. Thus the roots of the Puranic literature go back to
early dates, but most of the material is late. Even a cursory
study shows that there have been innumerable additions,
excisions, and alterations made in the course of the centuries.
Very few Puranas have a settled text : differing recensions
exist, and countless fragments of many types are found in
MSS., either incorporated in a Purana, or claiming to belong
to one. The sectarian Purana is essentially an old text
partially rewritten for a sectarian end, or an old text with
a sectarian document incorporated in it ; and this process of
contamination has been continued through all the centuries
since the Gupta period, y Ancient legends about the sectarian
gods, masses of sectarian theology, philosophy, ritual, and art,
manuals of politics, war, astrology, medicine, rhetoric, and
grammar, and mahatmyas (i. d*. panegyrics) of temples and
other places of pilgrimage, now form a large part of the con-
tents of the Puranas. Thus even if the precise date of the
original compilation of each of the twenty Puranas were
definitely known, we should still be compelled to judge the
age and origin of each section on its own merits. But very
little of this critical work has yet been done ; so that only
tentative conclusions can be given at present ; and critical
140 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
study will prove fruitful only if the Puranic material is exam-
ined in the closest possible relation to the history of the sects.
We propose to fit Puranic material into our outline of the
history in two ways. First, we shall give a list in each
chapter of those Puranas or sections of Puranas which seem to
belong to its period ; and secondly we shall use those sectarian
Puranic documents whose connexions can be discerned to help
to complete our sketch of the literature of each period.
§ 159. It is clear that the Harivamia belongs to this period,
but there is no absolute proof with r^ard to any other docu-
ment. Yet we propose, tentatively, to assign the following
Puranas and parts of Puranas to this period, since the evidence
in each case seems to favour the ascription. They are briefly
discussed below in the sections which deal with the sectarian
literatures, and in each case the reasons for ascribing them to
this period are stated.
The sect of Vishnu : Harivamia and Vishnu P.
Siva : Sections in Vdyu P.
Brahma \ First Khanda of Padma P. ; portions
of Mdrkandeya P.
Durga: Hymns in Harivamia \ Chandl Ma-
hatmya of Mdrkandeya P.
Surya : Section of Mdrkandeya P. ; Brahma
Parvan of Bhavishya P,
5J
>>
5>
C. The Orthodox Twice-born and their Literature.
§ 160. The slow yet steady weakening of the ancient sacri-
fices prescribed in the Srauta-sutras seems to be one of the
chief features of orthodox life during this period, while the
simpler rites laid down in the Grihya-sutras were more and
more practised and also widened in their scope. The popular
gods took their place in the worship of the home, and were
honoured with a ritual taken from the Grihya-sutras. At this
time also the word Smdrta began to be used for the orthodox
twice-born man who does not offer the Srauta sacrifices, while
PHILOSOPHIES -AND SECTS 141
Sratita became the term for the man who still keeps up several
or all of the Srauta rites. The word Smarta occurs first of all
in this sense in the Pari^ishtas to Baudhayana's Grikya-sutra.
Smarta comes from Smriti ; and the idea is that the Smarta's
worship depends upon smriti, i. e. the sutras, and in particular
on the Grihya-sutra of the school to which he belongs.
For the whole group of orthodox twice-born men the final
exposition of the Karma Mimamsa, the Nyaya, and the Vaise-
shika in sutras — ^all three being systems which orthodox
householders favoured — and the codification of the ancient
dharma in the lawbooks during those centuries must have
been of signal importance ; while the writing of the Pari^ishtas
now attached to the Baudhdyana Grihya-sutras seems to have
arisen directly from the emergence of the Smartas.
The chief works on the sacred law belonging to this period
are the Visknusmriti, the Vaikhdnasa Grihya and Dharma-
sutras^ the Ydjhavalkya Dharmasdstra and certain Pari-
sishtas or appendices tacked on to the Baudhdyana Grihya-
sutra. The earliest of these works is the VishnusmritL
which is later than the Harivamsa, and the latest is the
Ydjnavalkya Dharmasdstra^ which borrows passages from the
Vishnusmriti and speaks of Gane^a. The Baudhdyana Grihya-
sutra is of peculiar interest for the history of the Smarta
community ; for it is sometimes called ihe Smdrta-sutra in
MSS. ; ^ and its Pari^ishtas contain rules for their cult.^ It
would be well if they could be critically edited. The Ydjna-
valkya Dharmasdstra stands in close relationship to Manu and
is also an orthodox work.
The legal material of the Vishnusmriti is in prose sutras,
and seems to have been taken over almost unchanged from
the Dharma-sutra belonging to the Charayanlya-Kathakas,
one of the ancient schools of the Black Yajurveda ; but some
rules have been altered and a few new ones added. The
' Biihler, SBE, XIV. xxx.
' I am informed that the worship of the five gods is dealt with in them ;
see § 207.
142 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
reviser has also introduced a short chapter at the beginning,
in which we are told that the goddess of the earth received
this whole body of law from the lips of the supreme Vishnu,
and added two at the end in praise of Vishnu and his consort
Sri. Krishna receives no special mention. The code is thus
a Vaishnava work arranged for the use of some Vaishnava
community, most probably the Bhagavata, as is suggested at
many points by the commentator Nandapandita.^ The Vau
khdnasa Sutras are also Vaishnava, and as there are found in
the Tamil south to-day Vaishnava temples in which Vai'
khdnasa, as distinct from Pdhchardtra^ Samhitas^ are used for
the ritual, it. is probable that this also was prepared for
a special Vaishnava community.
§ i6i. It was seemingly during this period that the worship
of Vishnu and Siva as equal, or as one, was instituted ; for the
fullest exposition of the theory on which the cult rests occurs
in the Harivamsa? One might think that the worship
of Siva and Vishnu as one was a compromise meant to
reconcile warring sectaries, but facts suggest another explana-
tion.
The word Bhagavata has two meanings in modern Hinduism.
It is first an epithet used ofVaishnavas generally, as those who
use the Bhagavat-sastra,or body of works which revere Vishnu
as Bhagavan. It is used, in the second place, of a special
community ofVaishnavas, found to-day in most parts of South
India, who really adore Vishnu, but recognize the equality of
the two gods and keep up the use of Vedic rites. They are
therefore recognized as Smartas. It is of great importance to
distinguish this community of Vaishnava Smartas from the
sectarian Vaishnavas called Paiicharatras. We may be sure
that the passage in the Harivamsa, which reflects the double
worship, comes from the Bhagavatas. An Upanishad was
written later to establish the doctrine of the identity of Vishnu
^ SBE, VII. pp, 155 ;/. ; 208 «. 2; 268. ' See § 211 and § 212.
^ Chap. 184, lines 10660 if. Cf. Muir, OST, IV.; also Vy^intemitz,
I. 386. For the Harivamsa, see § 159 and § 162. *
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 143
and Siva, the Skanda U} The godhead conceived in this way
is designated Harihara^ Preserver- Destroyer. An inscription
dating from a.d. 528-9 ^ shows that the Bhagavata community
was already in existence during this period ; for it not only
uses the word Bhagavata but quotes their famous mantra,
Om namo Bhagavate Vdsud^vdya.
The presence in the Harivamsa of the classical text on the
metaphysical equality of Vishnu and Siva, and of several other
passages which fit in with the theory,^ naturally suggests the
question whether the Harivamsa may not be a Bhagavata
Purana corresponding to the Vishnu -P., which clearly belongs
to the Pailcharatra Vaishnavas. The emergence about the
same time of two Puranas so similar in their attitude to
Krishna would thereby find an explanation. The contents
and significance of the Harivamsa are dealt with below.
D. Vaishnava Literature,
§ i6q,. The Harivamia and the Vishnu P, are Krishnaite
works prepared with the utmost care and skill from old
materials, so that the popularity and the ancient influence of
the Puranic literature may be used to strengthen the cult of
Vishnu. It is suggested above * that the Harivamsa may be
a Bhagavata document, while there is no doubt that the
Vishnu P. sprang from the Vaishnava sect known as Paiicha-
ratras. They must in any case be considered together. The
Harivamsa clearly cannot be dated later than A. D. 400, and
the Vishnu P. is so like it in most of its features that it is
probable that it belongs to the same general date. Both
contain a good deal of cosmic matter, but it is in their treat-
ment of the Krishna-legend that they are most significant.
They presuppose the whole Mahdbhdrata story, but they tell
in great detail tKe sports and exploits of his youth, which are
' See § 210.
' The Khoh copper plates of Maharaja Sarhkshobha, belonging to the
year 209 of the Gupta era.
' cxxxi, 741 ff. ; cxlv. 8199 ff. ; cclxvi-cclxxxi ; cccxxiv. See Winternitz,
I. 384 ff.
' § 161.
144 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
merely alluded to in the epic. Perhaps three stages in the
development of the legend may be detected. The dramatist
Bhasa, who probably dates from the third century A. D., has
a play called Bdlacharita^ which tells the story of Krishna's
youth, as its name indicates. In it the HallUa sport is merely
an innocent dance. In the Fiw//«« -P. there are already various
erotic touches which go a good deal further ; while in the
Harivamsa the whole story of his youth is told at much
greater length and the Halll^a is treated as involving sexual
intercourse.^
In any case it is the life of Krishna, and, above all, the
legend of his youth that gives these works their significance ;
and the fresh material they contain, doubtless drawn from
legends which had long been current in and about Mathura,
could scarcely be surpassed in power to attract, to interest, and
to amuse the common people. Here we have Krishna and
his brother pictured in a series of feats of strength and cunning,
killing giants and circumventing rogues, the whole lighted up
with coarse country humour of the broadest type, and, along-
side, scenes of rustic merrymaking in which the young god
captures the hearts of all the young wives, and keeps up the
dance and the revel all night long.
The Harivamia had the immense good fortune to be
accepted as a fitting close to the Mahdbhdrata^ and in conse-
quence has enjoyed unlimited popularity and influence. The
Vishnu P. is the best representative of the whole class of
sectarian Puranas, since it is purely Vaishnava in its teaching
from beginning to end, and yet retains with considerable
faithfulness the character of the old unsectarian Puranas. It
is divided into six books, all of which, with the exception of
the fifth, are in the main ^ cosmic 'j in character, though
distinctly Vaishnava in theology. The fifth book tells the
story of Krishna and is the heart of the Purana, as has just
been shown. In its theology the Vishnu follows, in the main,
the Gitd and the other Vaishnava documents of the didactic
1 Chanda, lAR, 86 flf.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 145
epic, but it speaks of Krishna as being an incarnation of an
exceedingly small portion of Vishnu.
The appearance of these two great works sufficiently
attests the great place which Krishna held in Hindu thought
at the time. Thibaut's conjecture as to the influence of the
Gttd on the Veddnta-sutras^ and the unquestioned fact that
about this time the Song rose to a place of authority on an
equality with the Upanishads^ are further proofs of the
influence of the Vaishnava movement.
^i6^. The Mahd^ is a short Upanishad which voices the
Vaishnava conviction that Narayana, i.e. Vishnu, is the
eternal Brahman, that from him come the twenty-five
principles of the Sankhya system, and that Siva and Brahma
are subordinate deities, creations of his meditative power. It
is the oldest Vaishnava Upanishad, and probably comes from
our period. It is quoted by Ramanuja.^
E. iaiva Literature.
§ 164. In the didactic epic, as we have seen, a theology
named PaiSupata is woven round the god Siva. This system
makes its appearance next in the eailier part of the Vdyu P.
The bulk of the Purana probably belongs to the fourth or
fifth century, but the date of this Pai^upata section is not yet
known. The material, however, stands so near the Saiva
material of the Epic in character that we are inclined to place
it in this period rather than in the next. It contains a good
deal of * cosmic/ material very little modified, the philosophy \
following in the main the teaching of the theistic Yoga.
Chapters 11 to 15^ deal with Pai^upata Yoga, the various
forms of physical and intellectual practice which were tradi-
tional in the sect.* Here also occurs a Mahatmya of
Mahe^vara, and a hymn of praise in honour of Nllakantha,
both names of Siva.
* See§ 144.. ^ Deussen, SUV. 743.
» SBE. XLVIII. 522.
* Pa^upata ascetics are called urddhva-retasahy Pasupatds tapasvinahy
and bhasmoddhulitavigrahdh.
L
146 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
§165, But there is one passage which introduces us to
a sub-sect of the Paiupatas, viz. the Lakull^as. After an
enumeration of the Kalpas, there comes an account of the
ages iyugas) which form divisions of the present Kalpa. Of
these twenty-eight are enumerated, and Siva promises to
become incarnate in each. The last of the prophecies runs
that, when Krishna shall be incarnate as Vasudeva, Siva, by
means of his Yoga powers, will enter a dead body left un-
guarded in a burning-ground at Kayarohana, and will appear
as an ascetic named LakulL '\ Ku^ika, Gargya, Mitra, and
Kaurashya will be his disciples, and will practise Pa^upata
Yoga, smearing their bodies with ashes and dust.^
Now an inscription in an old shrine near the temple of
EklingjT, fourteen miles from Udaipur, says that Siva was
incarnate in the country of Broach and carried a rod {lakula)
in his hand, whence the place was called Kayavarohana, i.e.
descent in a body. The Cintra pra^asti says that Siva became
incarnate at Karohana, in the Lata country, and that, for the
strict performance of Pa^upata vows, there appeared in bodily
form four pupils, Kuiika, Gargya, Kaurushya, and Maitreya.
Karwar in the Baroda State is held to be the place, and a
temple of Lakullsa still stands there.
We have then, in the prophecy of the Vdyu^ the earliest
notice of the Lakullsa- Pasupatas. The history of the sect has
been worked out by Mr. R. D. Bhandarkar. A temple
belonging to it was assigned by Fergusson to the seventh
century ; it can be traced in inscriptions from Rajputana south
to Mysore, from the tenth century downwards, and large
numbers of Lakuli^a images have been found in Gujarat and
Rajputana. These images are different from all other images
of Siva : in them the god has but two arms, he holds a short
club in one of his hands, and the penis is naked and erect.
The two arms find an explanation if Lakull was a human
ascetic ; the club is the lakula from which he takes his name ;
* Cf. the account of Pa^upata ascetics in Atharvasiras U. : see
§ 113.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 147
and the penis naked and erect recalls the linga-passages of
the epic discussed above.^ •-
It thus seems likely that the sect was founded by a
Pa^upata ascetic named Lakuli, i.e. the club-bearer, who
taught a form of Pa^upata doctrine, and was recognized as an
incarnation of Siva. Since the name Lakuli does not occur
in the MahabharatUy it is likely that the sect arose after the
epic and before the VdyUy perhaps about the third or fourth
century.^ Now, given the belief that Siva has been incarnate
in this, the twenty-eighth, Mahayuga as LakulT, attended by
four disciples, the schematizing Indian imagination, which
created a long series of Vaishnava incarnations before Krishna,
a long series of Buddhas before Gautama, and a long series
of Tirthakaras before Mahavira, would soon discover the names
of the other incarnations and of the four disciples of each.
The sect would then have a line of divine teachers worthy of
comparison with the list of avataras in the Vaishnava sect ;
and that is precisely what we have in the Vdytt, It is very
noticeable that the doctrine of avataras, which was not adopted
at the time of the epic, is now accepted, and that the very
form of the story confesses that it is copied from the Krishna-
incarnation.
§ 166. It is probable that the bulk of Saivas throughout
this period belonged to no sub-sect, but continued their
worship of the god in accordance with ancient usage, as so
many do to-day, without troubling about Sects and theology,
but our information is very scanty.
About the Tamil Saivas a little is known, but there is
practically no literature to catalogue. Nakkira Deva, who
lived at some time during the period, seems to have been
a writer of eminence, but only one of the works attributed to
* See § 1 10. The epithet Urddhva-retasy which occurs in these passages,
is used here of Lakull^a ascetics in the sense of * chaste*.
' This date is certainly very speculative ; for the passage may possibly
have been interpolated after the writing of the original Purana; but it
is at least more likely to be near the date than Bhandarkar's suggestion,
the first century A. D.
L %
148 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
him is accepted by scholars as genuine, the Tirumuruhattup-
padaiy a poem in honour of the god Muruha, i.e. Subrahmanya.
F. Brahma Literature,
§ 167. A Brahma sect also appears in the literature. In
the Mdrkandeya P. and in the first Khanda of the Padnta P}
he is identified with the eternal Brahman of the Upanishads.
There can be little doubt that these passages belong to this
period, for only during these centuries was the sect of Brahma
prominent. In the Mdrkandeya he is spoken of as unborn,
changeless, imperishable, unknowable, the source of prakriti
and of souls, while in the Padnia^
Brahma and Brahman, the instrument and the first cause of creation,
are represented as the same, the primeval, excellent, beneficent, and
supreme Brahman in the form of Brahma and the rest, is the creation
and the creator, preserves and is preserved, devours and is devoured,
the first immaterial cause being, as is common in the pantheism of the
Puranas, also the material cause and substance of the universe.'
The greater part of the first Khanda of the Padma forms
the Pushkara Mahatmya, or panegyric of Pushkara, the holy
lake in Rajputana, where stands the one famous temple of
Brahma to-day.
Here we had better also say a word about the doctrine of
the Trimurti, according to which the one supreme Reality is
manifested as Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. It appears first in
two passages in the Maitrdyana U. In the first of these *
there is merely the statement that the three gods are the
highest manifestations of the bodiless Supreme, In the
second * it takes philosophical form : as prakriti^ the imper-
ceptible base of nature, consists of three strands, sattva^ rajas,
and tamas^ so the one Supreme is manifested in the three
gods, Vishnu being sattva, Brahma rajas, and Siva tamas.
* The Padma P, is named from the lotus in which Brahma appears at
the creation. It was thus a Brahma Purana from the beginning.
« Wilson, Works, III. 24.
» IV. 5-6. * V. 2. • See § 147.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 149
Such is the original form of the doctrine. But, since each
sect identified its own god with the supreme Brahman, the
trimurti has a distinct form in each. To the Vishnuite
Vishnu-Brahman is manifested in three gods, Brahma, a
subordinate Vishnu, and Siva,^ while to the Saiva, Siva-
Brahman is manifested in Brahma, Vishnu, and Bhava.*"*
A similar scheme was set forth by Sauras,^ by the worshippers
of Brahma,* by Ganapatyas,^ and by Saktas.® The Nim-
barkas and other sects identify Krishna as distinct from
Vishnu with Brahman, and thus have a scheme of their ownj
The doctrine has never been a living element in the religion
of the Hindu, although it often appears in literature and now
and then in sculpture. It may be well to notice how utterly
utilike the Christian doctrine of the Trinity this unstable
theory is. It always involves four gods, one Supreme and
three manifestations, and the phrase in the Matsya P. which
has been often mistranslated ' One God and three persons ',
really means * One image, three gods ',® and it does not cover
the one Reality behind these manifestations.
G. Durgd Literature.
§ 168. The worship of the goddess Durga also comes to the
surface in the literature at this point The earliest passage
occurs in the Mahdbhdrata^ and celebrates Durga as the
slayer of Mahisha, and as a virgin goddess, who dwells in the
Vindhya mountains, delights in wine, flesh, and animal
sacrifice, and upholds heaven by her chastity, but is also the
sister of Krishnia,^^ and like him is dark blue in colour and
^ MBH. Ill.cclxxii. 46.
* Uhga P. I. xviii. 12 ; Muir, OST. IV. 330.
. • R&mdyana^ VI. cvi. 19. Cf. Wilson, Sects^ I. 19.
* M&rkandeya, P. xlv. 19. ^ ERE. VI. 175 f.
• See Avalon, TGL, xxiv.
' Bhandarkar, VS. 79; Wilson, Works^ III. 93.
• Ekd murtis trayo devdh. It is suggested by images such as the
trimurti in the Elephanta cave. • IV. vi,
" This refers to the story of Yoganidra, which appears first in the
Harivamsa and the Vishnu P.
I50 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
wears a crest of peacock feathers. Here, as it would seem,
a virgin goddess worshipped by the ^Vild tribes of the
Vindhyas has become connected with the Krishna myth. No
connexion with Siva is suggested.
The next passage is also from the epic,^ and is noteworthy
for this, that while the goddess is still connected with the
Krishna legend, and is represented as delighting in the blood
of Mahisha, she is now definitely made the wife of Siva, and
is addressed as Uma. She is also identified with the VedaJs,
the Vedanta, chastity, and many other things, but is no longer
regarded as a virgin.
Two hymns in the Harivamia? and the episode in the
Mdrkandeya P., known as the Devt-mdhatniya or Chandl'
mdhdtmya^ show a still greater advance. The Harivamsa
probably dates from the fourth, and cannot be later than the
fifth, century ; and the Chandl-mdhdtmya almost certainly
comes from the sixth century at latest ; for it forms the chief
background of Sana's Chandliataka^ an ode to Chandi in
a hundred verses which was written at the court of the
emperor Harsha early in the seventh century.^ The narrative
of the Chandl-mdhdtmya celebrates the mighty deeds of the
goddess and refers to her daily worship and autumnal festival,
while the three hymns contained in it and the hymns from the
Harivamia contain the theology of the cult.
A Devi-worshipping sect is here formed, and by the same
method as we have seen adopted by the Vaishnavas and the
Saivas : the Devi is identified with the Brahman of the
Upanishads, and is thus made the one Reality, and set far
above all other divinities. The concept of the diving iakti^
finds here its earliest expression. The idea seems to spring
from the conviction that the Supreme, if he is to remain
^ VI. xxiii. ' Chaps, lix and clxvi.
' The argument of Mr. R. D. Bhandarkar, JBBRAS. XXIll. 74, is
scarcely convincing ; for the line in question may, conceivably, have been
a common ascription of praise, and thus, as it stands in the inscription,
may not be a quotation from the Chandi at all.
* Mdrkandeya P, XCI. 4; 10.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 151
beyond the sway of the law of karma, must be inactive. But
if the god is inactive, may not his spouse be his iaktiy energy,
and be extremely active? Hence she is more worthy of
worship, and the practical man will be more inclined to apply
to her when he wants to get something done for him.
The narrative describes in great detail the furious fights in
which the goddess destroyed certain demons who were
threatening the gods. Here her limitless power and her
terrific appearance find forcible, even ghastly, expression.
She devours unnumbered foes and drinks their blood. There
is no detailed account given of her cult, but it is clear that
animal sacrifice was offered, and flesh and wine were used.
It is probable that human sacrifice was also practised. The
goddess promises that she will never desert a temple in which
the Dem-ntdhdtmya is read daily, and this document is still
one of the chief works in use among Saktas. It is also called
the Chandi, from one of the names of the goddess, and the
Saptasati^ because it runs to seven hundred couplets.
As the story of Yoganidra is not told in the Mahdbkdrata^
but first appears in the Harivamia and the Vishnu P., the
hymns in the Epic are probably later than the main sections
of the didactic Epic, while the hymn in the Harivamsd and
the Devt'tndhdtmya are still later.^
H. Saura Literature,
§ 169. The sun was worshipped in several forms in the time
of the RigvedUy and the prominence of the cult may be
partially gauged by the supremacy of the Gayatrl among
Vedic prayers. In the form of morning and evening prayer
finally arranged for all twice-born men the sun has an
established place.^
In the great Epic we meet for the first time the sect of Sun-
worshippers, the Sauras. When Yudhishthira leaves his
chamber in the morning, he encounters one thousand
^ For a full exposition of these early passages see Bhandarkar, VS, 142.
Mb., 15 If.
152 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
Brahman Sun-worshippers who have eight thousand followers/
and the theology of the sect appears in a number of docu-
ments belonging to this period, notably passages in the
Makdbhdratay the Rdmdyanay and the Mdrkandeya P., and
an inscription of the fifth century. The character of the
passage from the Mdrkandeya P., as compared with the other
Saura documents here dealt with, proves that it belongs to
this period. Surya is the eternal Brahman, the supreme
Spirit, the Self-existent, the Unborn, the soul of all creatures,
the cause of all things, the foundation of the world. On him
ascetics desirous of emancipation meditate. He is the Vedas
and all the gods. He is the Lord of Brahma, Vishnu, and
Siva. Thus far the sect and its ideas seem to be purely
Hindu.
§ 170. But as early as the first century A.D. the Persian sun-
god,Mithra (Sanskrit, -^/A/r^), was introduced into North India;
for his name and efiigy appear on coins.^ Then, at later
dates, there is much fuller evidence in the literature of the
presence of Persian elements in the cult of the sun. The
first fragment is a line which occurs in the Vishnu P. a,nd
elsewhere, the original reading of whioh speaks of Magas as
the Brahmans of Sakadvlpa, i. e. of Magians as the priests of
the Scythian country, or Iran.^ Next in age, probably, comes
the Brahma Parvan of the Bhavishya P. Samba, the son of
Krishna, according to this authority, was afflicted with leprosy
and was cleansed by the help of Surya. In gratitude to the
god he built a temple in his honour where Multan now stands,
and, as a result of instructions received from Narada, took
a miraculous journey to Sakadvlpa, and brought thence
Magian priests for the temple. The narrative mentions
Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian girdle, -^z{;/^;i^^, the \m%s^Barsom^
which the Magian priest holds in his hand during worship,
and other particulars. The rule is also laid down that the
installation and consecration of images and temples of the
» MBH.WU. Ixxxii. 14-16. ^ Chanda, lAR. 225.
3 Vishnu P. II. iv. 69-70; MBH. VI. xi. 35-8.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 153
sun should be carried out by Magians. Varaha Mihira, whose
name proclaims him a devotee of Mihira, and who was an
authority on astronomy and astrology, wrote about A.D. 550.^
He makes it plain that in his day Surya was represented in
his images in Persian fashion, and he lays down the rule for
the installation and consecration of these images and their
temples by Magians, using the very sloka^ which occurs in
the Purana. This unique passage then in the Bhavishya P.,
with its extremely accurate reflection of Zoroastrian practice
and ideas, and its agreement with Varaha Mihira, is much
more likely to belong to this period than the next. It is
probable, as Bloch argues,^ that the name Samba is taken
from the ancient Persian tale of Sam, and also that the theory
that the sun-god cures leprosy, which was long current in
India, comes from Persia. Since, however, the name of the
god, Surya, and the name of the sect, Saura, are Sanskrit,
and since the whole of the theology is, like the Saiva theology,
a reflex of the teaching of the Gltd^ it is clear that the sect
was purely Hindu in origin, and that the Zoroastrian features
are secondary.
li. Buddhism.
§171. In India, during the three centuries of this period,
the Mahayana reached the summit of its strength and
splendour, and several branches of the Hinayana continued
to show great vigour. In Ceylon, during the fourth and fifth
centuries, there was a great outburst of literary activity,
almost exclusively the work of monks. The religion also
continued to make progress in Khotan and Kuchar in Central
Asia, where, in addition to Zoroastrian propaganda, it now
had to face both Christianity and Manichaeism.* In China
* Macdonell, 318.
* Brihat 5., LX. 19. Vasu, Mayurabhanja^ 3, assumes that the ^loka
is quoted from the Bhavishya Z'., and on that basis dates the passage
before a.d. 550, but xh^sloka may have been in common use : we cannot
be sure that it is quoted from the Purana by Varaha Mihira.
' ZDMG, 1910, 733. * ERE, art. * Manichaeism*.
154 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
great advances were made. At the beginning of the fourth
century the emperor gave permission, for the first time, to his
subjects to become Buddhist monies.^ Henceforward the
faith laid a far stronger hold on the people. In A,D. 371J
Chinese monks introduced the religion into Korea ^; and in
A.D. 399 Pa Hian, the first Chinese pilgrim to leave home in
search of Buddhist learning and texts, arrived in India.
A. Hlnaydna Literature,
§i7!Z. We take Hinayana literature first, and begin with
Ceylon. The monks there made full use of all the commen-
taries on the sacred books which were procurable from India,
but they soon began to write themselves. At first they
translated these Indian works into Sinhalese, leaving only
the verses scattered about in the prose untranslated, but at
last they began to try what they could do in Pali, which had
become to them the sacred language of their religion. Hence
in the fourth century there opened a brilliant period of Pali
literary activity. Amid the numerous works prepared at this
time perhaps the most interesting is the Niddnakathd^ an
introduction to the commentary on the Jataka-book, which
shows that devotion for the Buddha was moving forward, in
Ceylon on the same lines as in North India, though more
slowly.
This expository activity culminated in Buddhaghosha. He
seems to have been born a Brahman and to have become an
accomplished Hindu scholar; but, converted to Buddhism, he
became a monk and laboured in the Mahavihara in Anuradha-
pura, Ceylon, in the first half of the fifth century A.D. H#
absorbed the whole Buddhist system as taught there with all
its learning, and became its classic representative. His first
work was the Visuddhimaggay or Way of Purity, a systematic
exposition of the Buddhism of the Pali books of very high
quality. Thereafter he composed, on the basis of all the
Sinhalese and Pali work done before him, a series of great
^ Hackmann, 7^, * lb. 85.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS i55
commentaries on the chief books of the Pali canon. In these
works, while the life of the Buddha as a monk is still clearly
realized, he is also thought of as a sort of divine being
exercising cosmic powers, as in the Mahayana. Dhammapala,
a scholar trained also in the Mahavihara, lived on the coast
of India opposite Ceylon and wrote Pali commentaries at
a date a little later. His conception and outlook are the same
as Buddhaghosha's.
The Dtpavamsa, the Island Chronicle, and the Mahdvamsa,
the great Chronicle, are Pali epics, the former an artless work
in rough language written in the fourth century, the latter
a work of genius, comparable with the great Indian kdvyas,
composed in the last quarter of the fifth century. Both rest
on irregular notes of events kept in the Mahavihara and
ancient Pali verses scattered in the commentaries, and both
are partly historical but largely legendary.
§ 173. We know very little about the history of the Hinayana
sects in India or about fresh literature composed by them
during the period ; but it is^ quite clear that they were very
active in propagating their teaching in China and in Central
Asia, for a great deal of their literature was translated. The
permission granted at the beginning of the fourth century to
the Chinese to become monks led to the translation of the
Vinaya texts of four Hinayana schools within a period of
twenty years, A.D, 404-^4.
We take the ancient Canon first. The four leading collec-
tions of the Sutra Pitaka — the Dirgha, Madhyama, Samyukta,
and Ekottara Agamas, as they are called in Sanskrit — were
translated into Chinese.^ Three distinct renderings of the
Dharmapada ^ are mentioned.
Of Sthavira texts the Questions of King Milinda^ Buddha-
ghosha's commentary on the Vinaya Pitaka,* and scores of
little tracts were translated into Chinese.^
* Nanjio, 545, 542, 544, 543. 2 j^, 1355^ 13^3^ 1321.
' lb. 1358. * Winternitz, II. i. 152.
' Nanjio, 615; 638; 645; 665; 670; 674; 693; 696; 698-700; 703;
707-10; 761; 1113; 1327.
J56 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
The Sarvastivadins were probabl>^the most vigorous of the
Hinayana schools. The influence of their philosophy, known
as Vaibhashika, is shown by Vasubandha's criticism, which
Saiighabhadra attempted to answer in his Nydydnusdra-idstra.
Two of the chief books of their Vinaya were translated into
Chinese in A.D.404,^ and, probably about the same time, parts
were rendered into Kuchean.^ It is probable that much of
their Sutra Pitaka was translated into Chinese, but it is im-
possible as yet to identify the texts. Parts of the Sanskrit
originals have been found in Central Asia.^ The chief text
of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma was translated into Chinese
in A.D. 383,* and at the same time, or rather later, several of
the Abhidharma commentaries.* The old"^ Sarvastivadin
Buddha-biography had now become the famous Mahayana
work, the Lalita Vistara?
It was the Mahasanghika Ekottara Agama that was ren-
dered into Chinese in a.d. 384-5,^ and their Vinaya followed
in A.D. 416.®
The Dharmagupta and the Mahl^asaka schools, which were
related to the Sarvastivadins, were also active. The Dharma-
guptas had a famous life of the Buddha, the Abhinishkramana
Sutra^ which was in use during this period* The Dharma-
gupta Vinaya was translated into Chinese in A.D. 405*® and
fragments of Vinaya texts in mixed Sanskrit, written during
our period, have been found in Kuchar in Central Asia, which
show a close relationship at least with the Dharmagupta texts.^®
The Mahi^asaka Vinaya was the last of the four to be ren-
dered into Chinese. It was done in A.D. ^%^y^
Finally we may take here Arya^ura's famous work, the
Jdtakamdldy which seems to belong to the fourth century.
^ Nanjio, 1 115, 1 160. Two of the commentaries on the Vinaya were also
translated; 1135,1136.
* Hoemle, MRBL, 357 ff. ^ lb. 166 if.
* Nanjio, 1273. ^ ^h. 1264, 1279, 1289.
« § 174. ' ERE. IV. 836 ; Nanjio, 543.
* Nanjio, 11 19. * Nanjio, 1 117.
" Hoemle, MRBL, 4, 9. " Nanjio, 1122.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 157
He belonged to the school of Asvaghosha, and his brilliant
series of Buddhist tales has many of the qualities of the Sutra-
lamkdra,
B. Mahay ana Literature.
§ 174. We take Mahayana literature next. It is quite clear
that the Great Vehicle grew and extended during our period
more rapidly than the Hinayana, thus proving itself better
fitted for the circumstances of the time than the older school.
The Lalita Vistara, one of the greatest of Buddhist books,
seems to have reached its present condition at some time
during our period. Originally the Buddha-biography of the
Sarvastivadins, it was taken over by Mahayanists and re-
written, possibly by several hands. Although written partly
in verse and partly in prose, and consisting of material drawn
from many sources, early and late, it is yet a unity, a work of
genuine epic strength and interest, and charged with religious
belief and feeling which carried it to every part of central and
eastern Asia.
The Buddha is conceived as the Supreme, boundless in
power and wisdom, and he is represented as surrounded by
multitudes of Bodhisattvas nearing Buddhahood. In the
middle watch of the night, while he sits in profound medita-
tion, there shoots out from the crown of his head a ray of
light which passes through the heavens and rouses all the gods
to attention. They sing a hymn of praise to the exalted
Buddha, and, throwing themselves at his feet, beg him to
reveal the Lalita Vistara to the world. Yet, though the
writers of the Mahayana thus raise the Buddha to the place
of the Supreme, they do not make him altogether a god : they
retain some consciousness of his human life, and recognize
that he possessed a real body which has left actual relics on
the earth.
A new edition of the Saddharma Pundartka^ containing
six fresh chapters,^ appeared, probably early in the third
* Nanjio, 138. ^ Chaps. xxi~vi. SBE» XXI.
158 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
•
century; for it was translated into Chinese about A. D. 300.
One of these chapters, chap, xxi, deals with dhdranis^ spalls,
i. e. words, phrases, or prayers believed to be filled with magic
power, and marks the time when this particular superstition
laid firm hold of the Mahayana. The next chapter tells how
the Bodhisattva Bhaishajyaraja, i. e. King of Medicine, burnt
his body in honour of the Buddha ; and young Buddhists are
urged to burn a finger, a toe, or a whole limb, in order to win
great merit. Thus the old Hindu tapas^ self-torture^ which
Gautama condemned utterly, has reappeared in Buddhism.
Another chapter describes and explains the transformation
which the Bodhisattva Avalokite^vara undergoes in his efforts
to save men. No matter how frightful may be the danger
a man stands in, this chapter affirms that, if he but think of
Avalokitesvara, he will be saved. This explains how, trans-
formed into a goddess, he became a divinity of mercy to China
and Japan.
§ 175. Several fresh books belonging to the Paradise Maha-
yana seem to have been written during the period. Two of
these become very famous, the shorter Sukhdvatl and the
Amitdyur-dhydna-sutra. The shorter Sukhdvatl is scarcely
perceptibly different in teaching from the larger work. The
main purpose of the Amitdyur-dhydna-sutrd is to teach people
by meditation to see the paradise SukhavatI in hypnotic vision,
so that through this meditation they may obtain entrance to
it at death, but it also shows in some degree the influence
of the Madhyamika school and of the Vedanta. Vasubandhu's
Aparantitdyussutra-sdstra sums up the texts of the Paradise
Mahayana.
To the same general type of teaching belong three famous
sutras. The early prose Kdrandavyuha glorifies the Bodhi-
sattva Avalokitesvara, who is made so much of in the Sadd-
harma Pundarlka ; the Buddhdvatamsaka (or Gandavyuhd) is
devoted to another Bodhisattva, Manjusri ; ^ while the Karund-
pundarika tells of a Buddha named Padmottara, i.' e. Supreme
* ERE. I. 95.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 159
Lotus, and his wonderful paradise, Padmadhatu, i. e. Lotus-
land.
The Mahdsannipdta^ of which the writer has no description,
gave its name to a class of works in the Chinese Canon. The
Suvarnaprabhdsa and the Samddhirdja represent the full
Mahayana teaching verging towards the magic spells, the
trances, the goddesses, and the inchoate theism of the Tantras.
All these Mahayana works were translated into Chinese.
§ 176. One of the developments of Mahayana Buddhology
belonging to this period occurs so frequently that it had better
be mentioned here. Each Buddha has three bodies, the dhar-
ntakdya, or body consisting of the law, construed by the
Madhyamakas as the void, by the Vijnanavadins in an idealist
sense, the sambhogakdya^ or body of bliss, which he wears for
ever in his supramundane state and which is comparable with
the glorious bodies of the great Hindu gods, and the nirmdna-
kdya^ the formed or magical body, which* he wore on earth,
and which is comparable with the body of a Hindu avatara.^
a. The Mddhyamakas,
§ J 77. Teachers of the Madhyamaka philosophy were clearly
very active during the period. Aryadeva seems to have fol-
lowed Nagarjuna in the first half of the third century. Nanjio
gives a list of his commentaries and original works. The last
of these, the Svddhishthdna-prabheda, has recently been found
in Nepal. Two of the most famous of the Prajna texts, the
Vajrachchhedikd Prajndpdramitd and the Prajndpdramitd-
hridaya-sutra, seem to belong to this period. Max Miiller
says that the Vajrachchhedikd is ' one of the most widely read
and most highly valued metaphysical treatises in Buddhist
literature ', while the Hridaya-sutra is * the most widely read
Buddhist text in Japan'. Proof of the popularity of the
Vajrachchhedikd in Khotan is found in the complete MS. of
the original Sanskrit text, a*nd the MS. of the old Khotanese
version, both found by Sir Aurel Stein and now published.
* Poussin, ERE. I, 97.
i6o PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
There is also a famous Madhyamaka work on the ten stages
{bhumis) of the career of the Bodhisattva, called the Daia-
bhumika-sutray on which Vasubandhu wrote a commentary.^
It was originally a chapter of the Buddhdvatamsaka-sutra.
b. The Vijhdnavddins.
§ 178. A new Buddhist philosophy of very great importance
arose about A.D. 300, the leading writer being Asanga, the
eldest of three Brahman brothers, who became Buddhists of
the Sarvastivadin school. Asanga, however, soon passed over
to the Mahayana. His idealist system has two names: from
the side of its metaphysics it is called Vijndnavdda^ * Thought-
system,' because it teaches that nothing exists except thought,
while from the side of its practice it is called Yogdchara^ Yoga-
practice, because the end can be reached only by the long-
continued practice of meditation. The external world is
illusion: only thought exists. All individual intellectual
products are also mere phenomena, products of the dlaya"
vijndna^ the storehouse of intellectual impressions and forms
in each individual, which is the sole foundation of the false
belief in the existence of a self. But even the dlayavijHdna
itself has but a relative reality as compared with the one and
universal bodkiy * Wisdom/ which is held and manifested by
all Buddhas, In order to attain bodhi, it is necessary to
become a Bodhisattva under the Mahayana, and practise
yogachara through all the bhumis^ stages, of the Bodhisattva
career. Yet in this intellectual philosophy the use oi dhdrantSy
spells, is constantly commended, and the belief that the Bodhi-
sattva attains vast miraculous powers, vibhutva^ is explicitly
taught. The foundation text is Asanga's Yogdchdra-bhutni-
idstrUy which survives only in Chinese, and is the chief scripture
of the Shin-gon sect of Japan.^ One chapter, however, called
the Bodhisattvabhumiy was used as a separate work and sur-
vives in Sanskrit. It deals with the stages of the Bodhisattva
career, and is thus the Vijilanavadin work corresponding to
* Nanjio, 11 94. * Griffis, RJ, 249.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS i6i
the Madhyamaka Dasabhumika-sutra} Another work of his,
the Mahdydnasutrdlaikkdra^ is a set of karikas, or memorial
verses, accompanied by a prose commentary, the commentary
as well as the text being by Asahga. It is a clear, systematic
statement of the philosophy. He left other works ^ also. The
famous text-book, Mahdydna-sraddhotpdda'Sdstra^ attributed
to Asvaghosha, seems to teach Asanga's system.
The Lankdvatdra-sutra, one of the greatest Mahayana texts,
represents the Buddha as visiting Ravana in Ceylon. The
teaching is Vijnanavadin, yet in some points it seems to go
beyond Asahga and to draw very near the teaching of the
Vedanta, that the human soul is God. It is a controversial
work and attacks the Sahkhya, Vai^eshika, Nyaya, Pasupata,
and other Hindu systems.
§ 179. Vasubandhu,^ Asanga's youngest brother, passed
over to the Mahayana at a fairly late date. Hence his works
are partly Hinayana, partly Mahayana. His greatest work,
the Abhidharma-kosa, is founded on the Sarvastivadin Abhi-
dharma, and has very close connexions with its chief scripture,
yet he has expressed in this work the fundamental conceptions
of Buddhism with so much skill and clearness that it is
a standard work with all the sects. Chinese and Tibetan
translations survive, but the original Sanskrit is lost. The
Abhidharma-koia-vydkhydy however, a commentary on it in
Sanskrit by Yasomitra, survives, and is much used by modern
scholars. Amongst his many works we may mention his Tarka-
sdstra^ the earliest systematic logic by a Buddhist, and the
Paramdrthasaptati, a refutation in seventy verses of the
seventy verses of the Sdnkhya Kdrika^
§ 180. A very large number of texts, Hinayana as well as
Mahayana, were translated into Chinese during this period.
Then, in A.D. 518, almost at the end of the period, the first
collection of Buddhist Chinese texts was made by order of
* See § 177, and cf. ERE. II. 745. ^ Nanjio, 1245, 1184, 1236.
^ For his date see § 146.
* Nanjio, 1252; Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 76. ^ See § 146.
M
i62 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
the Emperor, and in 52,0 a list of the books in the Tripitaka
as translated was drawn up, which still survives.^ Chinese
Buddhism thus created a sacred canon of its own. Towards
the end of our period Chinese Buddhism had become so great
that, in A.D. 526, the Patriarch of the Buddhist Church was
removed from India to China.^
iii. Jainism.
§ 181. The history of Jainism during this period is not yet
well known, but it seems to have continued to make progress
in many parts of the country. The Digambaras were active
in the Kanarese country^ and also in Tamil-land. Svetambara
Jains were clearly growing in influence and numbers in North
India from Bihar in the east to Kathiawar in the west. The
collection and publication of the Svetambara Canon at Valabhi
at the beginning of the sixth century gives vivid expression
to the fact that Kathiawar had now become the leading centre
of Jain influence. As the Buddhist sects created from the
living vernaculars of the day several literary dialects (e.g.
Magadhi, Pali, mixed Sanskrit) and used them for their sacred
books, so the Jains created their own sacred dialect, which they
call Ardha-Magadhi, i.e. Half-Magadhi, but which modem
scholars usually call Jain Prakrit. In this ancient speech, then,
the books of the Svetambara Canon, and also a number of
Digambara works, are written^ But in Jain commentaries,
tales, and poems we meet with a younger Prakrit which is
called Jain Maharashtrl, because, though it is closely related
to, it is not yet identical with, Maharashtrl, the linguistic
ancestor of modern Marathi.* But Jain writers from the time
of the Gupla empire used Sanskrit when they wanted to appeal
to the learned public of India in treatises on philosophic and
religious subjects.
^ Nanjio, p. xxvii. ' Hackmann, 80.
' See a long series of Digambara inscriptions, Gudrinot, 224.
* Pischel, GPS. p. 19; Wintemitz, I. 14 ; Jacob!, ERE, VII. 467.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 163
A. Svetdmbara Literature.
§ 182. We begin with Svetambara literature. Jain tradition
tells us that the books of the Canon were collected, edited,
and reduced to writing at Valabhi in a Council of which
Devarddhi was president, 980 years after the death of Maha-
vlra. The initial date may have been held to be either 527 B.C.
or 467 B.C. Jacobi is inclined to take the latter, which would
give us A.D. 514 as the date of the Council. As the gathering
of the Council and the arrangement and publication of the
voluminous books of the Canon would involve considerable
organization and expense, and as the dynasty of Valabhi rose
to power about A.D. 490 or 495,^ it would seem to be more
likely that the great task was undertaken in A. D. 514 than
sixty years earlier. It is thus probable that, the Svetambara
Canon dates from the beginning of the sixth century. It will
be remembered that the Canon said to have been arranged at
Pataliputra consisted of twelve Ahga.^ Tradition runs that
the fourteen Purva, which formed the contents of the twelfth
Ahga, were gradually lost in the following centuries, but that
the eleven were faithfully preserved and incorporated in the
new Canon at Valabhi. According to a list in the Canon,
there were sixty treatises included in it besides the Anga.^
§ ^83. Jains acknowledge that these sixty books came into
existence in the interval between the two Councils ; and there
are certain traditions about the authorship of several of the
documents.* Jacobi gives it as his opinion that these sixty
books were collected * probably in the first centuries before
our era', and that 'additions or alterations may have been
made ' down to the time of the Council at Valabhi ; ^ while
Weber* gives it as his opinion that the compilation of the
Ahga as well as the other books took place between the second
and the fifth centuries a.d. In any case there must have been
1 V. Smith, EHL 327 ; Mabel Duff, CI, 308. ' See § 70.
^ In the Nandisutra: Weber, lA, XVI I. 283.
* Weber, lA, xvii. 281. » SBE. XLV. p. xl.
« lA, XVII. 289.
M %
i64 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
a good deal of literary activity between A.D. 200 and 500. It
IS probable that the Nandisutra and part of the Kalpasutra
are by Devarddhi himself^
§ 184. We must now ask what has happened to the books
of the Canon since the beginning of the sixth century, and we
are at once confronted with the fact that a very large part of
the contents have been lost. The Canon to-day consists of
forty-five documents. Weber ^ calculates that of the books
other than the Angas edited at Valabhi nearly as many have
been lost as there are preserved. But the disappearance of
a large number of the books is not the only fact to be noticed.
Jacobi and Weber ^ tell us that many of the surviving works
consist of incoherent parts, and that the commentaries, based
on texts older than those available to-day, show that large
sections have disappeared, while numerous passages have been
interpolated. The texts are thus in a very unsatisfactory
condition.
§ 185. We now turn to extra-canonical literature. Two of
the most famous of the early writers were connected with
Pataliputra, and apparently flourished during the time of
Gupta prosperity. Umasvati tells us himself* that he wrote
the Tattvdrthadhigama'Sutra at Pataliputra. It is a philoso-
phical work, comparable with the sutras which lie at the
foundation of the Hindu philosophies, and deals with all the
main constituents of the Jain system. It has been much used
by both the sects. As the work refers to Pataiyali's Yoga-
sutra^ while a commentary on it was written by Siddhasena-
gani, whose date is the first half of the sixth century, it is
probable that Umasvati belongs to the fifth or the fourth
century. Tradition connects Siddhasena Divakara also with
Pataliputra, and he is quoted by Siddhasenagani, so that he too
belongs to the time of Gupta dominance, whether to the fourth
1 Weber, lA, XVII. 291 ; XXI. 213; Jacobi, SBE, XXII. lii.
2 lA. XXI. 373.
^ Jacobi, Kalpasutra, 18 f.; Weber, I A. XVII. 287 ff.
* Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 9.
* Woods, Yoga, xix.
PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS 165
or the fifth century. He wrote a hymn of praise in Sanskrit
verse, the Kalydnamandirastotra^ which Jains greatly treasure,
also the Nydyavatdra^ a Sanskrit poem in thirty-two short
stanzas, which forms the earliest Jain work on Logic.
Siddhasenagani seems to have been a contemporary of
Devarddhi and to have been one of the earliest of those who
wrote bhashyas ^ in Prakrit on the books of the Canon. He
is also the author of the first commentary on Umasvati's great
work. He is thus parallel to Vatsyayana and Sahara Svamin *
who wrote their bhashyas a little earlier.
§ 186. It seems clear that the Jains of Gujarat began to
produce a popular literature in Prakrit at a very early date ;
and there is abundant evidence to show that down to the
ninth century at least they continued to produce a copious
and varied Prakrit literature, which must have proved of large
service to general culture. From our period only one Jain
work of importance in Prakrit seems to have survived ; but
Jacobi assures us that its statements and its style unite to
prove that many Prakrit works preceded it. It is called the
Paumachariyay and is a Jain adaptation of the Rdmdyana
of Valmlki. The author is said to have been Vimala Suri.
Jacobi is inclined to place it in the third or fourth century.^
It is thus almost as early as Hala's famous anthology, the
Sattasat.
B. Digambara Literature,
§ 187. The Digambaras possess no ancient Canon parallel
to the Svetambara books. As we have seen above,* they have
a list of sacred books which they say they once possessed,
but which are now no more. They pronounce the Sve-
tambara books apocryphal, and there is this amount of truth
in the charge that the Svetambaras undoubtedly modified the
^ For the niryuktis and bhashyas see Leumann, ZDMG, XLVI. 581 ff,
^ See § 153.
' For the whole subject see Jacobi*s article in the Modern Review
(Calcutta), Dec. 191 4.
* See §135.
i66 PHILOSOPHIES AND SECTS
ancient books, after the separation, so as to bring them into
full consonance with their own standards. Yet among the
books which the Digambaras possess, and which have a place
in their Secondary Canon,^ there are at least two which bear
the names of books of the Svetambara Canon, viz. the Surya-
prajnaptiy and the Ckandraprajnaptu The whole problem
of the relation of the Digambaras to the early literature needs
to be cleared up.
§ i88. But there are two Digambara writers who seem to
belong to our period and whose works are well known to-day.
One is Vattakera, author of the Miildchara. a work on conduct.
It corresponds to the Achdrdnga-sutra of the Svetambara
Canon, and is said to be an adaptation and summary of that
work. Another book on conduct, the Trivarndckdra^ is also
attributed to him. The other writer is one of the greatest
names in early Digambara history, Kundakundacharya. Ten
fundamental works of great importance, which have been
much expounded and studied, were written by him. They
are in Prakrit verse, and deal with the whole Digambara
system. It seems to be impossible as yet to fix the dates of
these men.
^ See § 257.
CHAPTER V
THE :^Akta systems
A. D. 550-900.
§ 189. The date with which our chapter opens is meant to
coincide with the time when the Sakta systems began to
appear; for they are unquestionably the most noteworthy
product of these times. The exahation and the adoration
of goddesses is manifestly the first characteristic of these new
theologies ; but other forms of faith and practice were very
prominent : an immense extension of the use of magic spells ;
a belief in the existence of occult channels and ganglia in the
human frame, and in the presence of the goddess herself —
coiled up like a snake and asleep — in the chief ganglion ;
a new type of hypnotic meditation believed to be potent to
wake the goddess; and, in some sects, the inclusion in the
cult of foul, gruesome, and degrading practices.
During this period the sects became more highly organized
than ever before. In addition to the Sakta element already
described, each sect was expected to possess an Upanishad and
a manual; — the Upanishad to prove that its teaching had come
by revelation and was in full consonance with the Vedanta ;
the manual to provide a statement of the theology of the
sect, a directory of its occult yoga practice, rules of conduct
and ritual, and directions for the preparation of images
and the building of temples. Each sect had its own
order of sannyasls. Each was also expected to train a
number of gurus for its cultured members. The layman
received initiation, dlkshd^ and regular instruction in the
philosophical theology of the sect from his guru, just like an
/ —
i68 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
ascetic. Finally, each sect had its own mantra and sect-mark,
tilaka.
One of the most noticeable features of the period is the
great series of philosophic thinkers and exegetes who adorned
the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, chiefly in the North.
Scarcely less important is the great company of itinerant
poet-musicians, both Vaishnava and Saiva, who filled the
temples of the Tamil country with their devotion and their
song.
Buddhism was carried to Japan in the sixth, and to Tibet
in the seventh century, while long-continued emigration carried
both Hinduism and Buddhism to Cambodia, Sumatra, and
Java. But India received as well as gave. A company of
Persian Zoroastrians, hunted to the death by their Muham-
madan conquerors, found asylum in India at the beginning
of the eighth century: their descendants are the Parsis of
to-day.
i. Hinduism.
A. The Philosophies,
a. The Karma Mimdmsd.
§ 190. During the first half of the period, the Karma
Mimamsa produced two famous scholars, Prabhakara, who is
known as Guru, and Kumarila, who is called Bhatta. Both
expounded Sahara's Bhdshya^ but they differed in some degree
in their interpretation of the system and founded rival schools.
The date of Prabhakara in unknown, but it is clear that he
preceded Kumarila. His work, the Brihafi^ is purely an
exposition of the Bhdshya : he does not . criticize Sahara.^
Kumarila, who seems to have lived in the first half of the
eighth century ,2 wrote a commentary on the Bhdshya in three
parts, in which he frequently differs from Sahara :
a. Slokavdrtika : verse : on the first part of Chap. I.
» Jha, PSPM, 12. « Pathak,/^^/?^5. 1892, 227.
THE SAKTA systems 169
«
b. Tantravdrtika : prose: on the- rest of Chap. I and
Chaps. II and III.
c. Tuptlkd : prose : brief notes on Chaps. IV to XII.
Prabhakara's teaching was further expounded by his own
disciple, Saiikanatha, while Mandanami^ra, also called Sure^-'
varacharya, a disciple of Sankara, wrote several works on
Kumarila's system. His Vidhiviveka was in turn expounded
in the Nydya-K anikd by Vachaspatimisra, whose position is
explained below.
Both Prabhakara and Kumarila maintain the original atheism
of the system, denying that divine action is needed in creation,
or in apportioning merit and demerit to souls. Both also
hold a realistic view of the universe ; but they differ on the
question whether the soul is pure consciousness or not, on
the nature of perception, of inference, and of logical cate-
gories.^
Kumarila proved the more potent influence of the two both
within the school and without. He attacks Buddhists fre-
quently in his works ; and tradition asserts that he used every
means to discredit and weaken them wherever he went in his
scholarly journeys, and that he invoked the civil power to
persecute them. What the historical facts are, we cannot
tell ; but it is probable that strong action lies behind a
tradition so widespread and persistent. His activity is to be
explained as the first vigorous manifestation of the spirit of
modern Hinduism, He represents the system which takes
its stand on the authority of the Vedas and of the Brahman
priests, recognizes a mass of sects within that ample fence, and
opposes every other system vehemently.
§ 191. It is of importance to observe that mukti, final
release, appears in the system for the first time in Prabhakara
and Kumarila. During the interval between Jaimini and these
thinkers Release had become a matter of such moment to the
Hindu mind that it could no longer be evaded. They teach
^ For both systems see Jha, PSPM. and Keith, JRAS, 1916, 369.
Also Jha, Bhandarkar CV. 167.
t —
170 THE SAKT A SYSTEMS
that release is won when both dharma and adharma dis-
appear, and that he who desires release should therefore
perform only necessary duties.^
§ 192. It is a most interesting fact that by the time of
Kumarila's activity, the ancient Vedic sacrificial system, which
the Karma Mimamsa expounds, was steadily decaying. Every-
where temple-worship and the presentation of offerings to
images tended to take the place of the ancient ordinances,
and the movement went on with increasing force after his day.
Yet the Mimamsa maintained its place, because it provided
rules for the exposition of the Vedic literature, which all
scholars required to use. Although the Karma Mimamsa is
the one system recognized by all Smartas, the changes which
have arisen in their practice seein to have left no trace in the
system itself.
b. The Veddnta,
§ 193. The earliest surviving commentary on the Veddnta-
sutras is by the great Sahkara, who flourished in the first half
of the ninth century ; but there is abundance of evidence to
show that a long line of writers and students of the Vedanta
filled the centuries between the time of the sutras and his day.
We have already seen that three types of theory were current
within the school before the sutras were composed.^ Various
doctrines were also held after that event; for between the
sutras and Sahkara there were representatives both of the
strict monism which he upholds and of the modified monism
taught much later by Ramanuja.^ One of the strict monists,
Gaudapada by name, the teacher of Sahkara's teacher, is the
author of a very noteworthy poem, which is appended to the
Mdndukya U, and is known as the Mdndukya Kdrikd.^ So
far as we know, he wrote no commentary on the sutras, but
1 Tha, PSPM, 83 flf. « § 145,
3 § 284.
* Walleser, DA K., contends that the name Gau^aplUla is a mistake,
that the writer's name has not been handed down, and that Buddhist
evidence proves that the Karika was already in existence by A. D. 550.
Scholars are inclined to think that the balance of evidence is in favour
/ —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 171
his Kdrikd has a very special interest for us as the earliest,
or at least the earliest surviving, document of the school of
monism and illusion. It is a work of genius, brilliant alike
in conception and expression. Deussen ^ compares him to
Parmenides. He also wrote commentaries on a number of
Upanishads. He must have flourished about the middle
of the eighth century. From information found in the works
of Sankara and RamSnuja we are able to give the names of
three writers earlier than Sankara who taught a theistic
interpretation of the sutras similar to Ramanuja*s doctrine,
namely Bodhayana, author of a vritti^ Tahka, author of a
vdkya^ and Dramida, author of a bhdshya on the sutras.^
§ 194. Sankara was the name assumed by a sannyasi bom
at Kaladi in the north of Travancore, probably in A.D. 788.
He became a brilliant scholar and produced a number of
philosophical writings characterized by great intellectual
capacity and an extremely fine style. He seems to have
lived until about a.d. 850.^ He left bhashyas on the Veddnta-
sutraSy the Gltd and the chief Upanishads. Besides these,
a number of Vedantic writings, mostly in verse, are attributed
to him, the chief being the Upadesa'Sahasrl^ a summary of
his doctrine in verse. Until strictly * scientific methods of
comparison are applied to ^the^ works, it will be impossible
to say how many are by Sankara. The best scholars usually
decide against them all. Numerous Sakta works in prose
and verse also bear his name, but there can hardly be a doubt
that they are not his offspring. About the Veddnta-sutra-
bhdshya fortunately there can be no question.
§ 195. The following is a brief outline of his advaitavdda^
pure monism. There exists only Brahman, one without a
of the personal name of the writer and of his connexion with Sankara.
Certainly the Buddhist evidence cited in favour of the early date of the
Kdrika does not seem to be cogent. See Bamett,y/?-<45. 19 10, p. 131 if. ;
l2LZo\yiyJAOS. xxxiii. 51, «. I.
^ SUV. 514. , » Thibaut, SBE, XXXIV. ^ff.
' Macdonell, SL, 402; Keith, AA, 11. The date a.d. 805-97, pro-
posed by S. V. Venkate^vara \n JRAS, 19 16, 151 ff., is scarcely likely to
be right, in view of the date of Vachaspati's Bhamatu
l^2 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
second, spiritual, unknowable. The material world is Mdyd^
illusion. The human soul is identical with Brahman : Tat
tvam asi^ * Thou art that.' But this contradicts all experience,
and man must live in his experience. Therefore Sankara dis-
tinguishes between supreme truth and the truth of experience.
Similarly, he recognizes not only God as he truly is under the
name para Brahman, the supreme Brahman, but also the same
being enwrapped in limitations and attributes as apara Brah-
man, the lower Brahman, who is the world-soul and a personal
God. The whole of our lower knowledge, however, our ideas
of the world, all our personal experience and our conception
of ourselves as distinct personalities — all this is more truly
described as ignorance than as knowledge. Liberation coaies
when a man rises from ignorance to true knowledge. This
comes finally by the grace of God, but a man may prepare
himself by study of the Veda and by the discipline of the
Vedanta. Even after knowledge is attained, the man con-
tinues to live; but at death he receives final release : * Brahman
he is and into Brahman he is resolved.'
It is noteworthy that Sankara holds strongly that, while
works may prepare the soul for the discipline of knowledge,
they can never help the man to reach release, but necessarily
bind him ever more firmly to transmigration. Hence, when
a man becomes a sannyasi of the Advaita Vedanta, he gives
up sacrifices and the other duties of the ordinary Hindu com-
pletely, and seeks knowledge as the oiily means to release.
This renunciation of the regular Hindu life is t5rpified in the
act of laying aside the sacred thread, which is part of the
ceremony of initiation into the life of the sannyasi.
§ 196. The striking resemblance which certain features of the
teaching of Gaudapada and Sankara present to Mahayana
philosophy led Hindu controversialists to assail it as * covert
Buddhism ; ' ^ and some modern scholars have been inclined
to say that its illusion and its doctrine of double truth have no
foundation in the Upanishads and must have been drawn from
* e. g. in the Padma P,
/ ~
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 173
the rival faith.^ This contention is strengthened by the fact
that there is no doctrine of illusion in the Veddnta-sutras^
But scholarly opinion seems now inclined to conclude that, in
the early Upanishads, there is unquestionably, along with other
ideas, the basis for a doctrine of pure monism, and that we
need go no farther afield than the Svetdsvatara U, for the
doctrine of mdyd^ but that Gaudapada and Sankara were
probably influenced in some degree by the two philosophical
systems of the Mahayana.^
§ 197. But there are other characteristics of the Bhashya
which are worthy of attention. Most of them have a basis in
the sutras but they are clearly worked out by Sankara. All
the main features of orthodox Hinduism are accepted and
buttressed with arguments, e.g. the inspiration of the Puranas,*
the permanent presence of all the traditional gods, even though
each is a transient being,^ the visibility of the gods to rishis in
ancient time,^ the eating of the sacrifice by the gods,"^ the
assumption by a god of many bodies so as to be present at many
sacrifices at one moment,^ &c. Thus the great philosophy,
which began by holding the popular religion in contempt,^ has
now become its willing servant.
It is clear that by Sahkara's day the Upanishads, the Gitd
and the Veddnta-sutras were recognized as the fundamental
scriptures of the Vedanta. At a later date they were called
the Prasthdnatraya or Triple Canon. Although the Gltd
and the Sutras are but smriti^ they are regarded with almost
as much veneration as the Upanishads, which are srutL
Indian scholars frequently speak of Sankara as one of the
greatest of the world's independent philosophic thinkers. The
* e.g. Walleser, DA V. 22 ff. ; also Dr. Jha :' see Keith, JRAS, 1916,
279 f.
2 Thibaut, SEE. XXXIV. xci-xcvii ; Keith, SS, 64.
' B2sntX.UjRAS. 1910, 1364; ]2iCoh\,JAOS. XXXIII. 151 flf.; Poussin,
JRAS, i^iOy 129 ff.; Keith, //?^5. 1916, 380.
* Bhashya on I. 3, 33 ; SBE, XXXIV. 222-3.
® On I. 3, 28 : lb. 202-3. ® On I. 3, 34 : lb. 222.
■^ On III. I, 7: SBE, XXXVIII. iio-i.
« On I. 3, 27 ; SBE. XXXIV. 199-200^ » See § 53.
/ i-
174 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
truth seems to be that he never questioned the truth of the
basis of the Vedanta, i.e. those writings which were then
recognized as revelation of the first grade, iruti. Yet within
these theological limits Sahkara displays consummate philo-
sophical capacity : he is th^ Thomas Aquinas of Hinduism.
§ 198. He seems to have been a man of organizing capacity
as well as a thinker. Tradition avers that he found the ascetic
orders of the Vedanta in disorder and regulated them, dividing
them into ten groups, placing each under one of his disciples
and naming them after these leaders. Certainly, the sannyasis
of the Vedanta to-day are in ten groups, and are known as
Dasnamis, i. e. sannyasis of ten names, and they unanimously
ascribe their constitution and rule to Sahkara.^ There are
also sannyasinls. A company of them whom I saw at the
Khumbh Mela at Allahabad in 19 18 belonged to the Giri
order. He also founded four monasteries, to form centres of
advaita learning and influence, Srihgeri in Mysore, Govar-
dhana in Purl, Sarada ^ in Dwarka, and Joshi at Badarinath in
the Himalayas. All four have survived to our day, and there
are a number of subordinate houses. Srihgeri, of which lie
was himself the head, is the chief monastery, and its ruler is
the supreme Pontiff of all advaita sannyasis.
§ 199. Sahkara made many tours through India, and proved
a triumphant controversialist, if we may trust the traditions of
^ The ten names are : i. Ttrtha^ 2. Asranta, 3. Sarasvatfy 4. Bharati^
5. Vana^ 6. Aranya^ 7. Parvata^ 8. Sdgara^ 9. Giri^ lo. Purt, Only
the first three are pure, i.e. restricted to twice-bom men, or rather to
Brahmans; for Kshatriyas and Vai^yas are negligible. Half of the
Bharati order is also said to be pure. The other six are open to the four
castes, but to no others. One often hears the phrase ^ankarcCs Daftifis
also : these are the innermost group of all ; tor only a Brahman can
receive a danda^ i. e. a bamboo rod ; and the ceremonial which attaches
to it is so troublesome that many prefer to do without it. Many of the
Dasnamis have discarded clothing, and are called Nagas (from Nagna,
* naked*). There were hundreds of them at the Kumbh Mela of 1918.
^ The goddess Sarasvati as patroness of the sciences and speech is
called j^arada, and has five faces and ten arms : Krishna ^astrf, SIL 187.
Tradition runs that to her grace ^ankara attributed his powers. To this
day the incumbent of oringeri, whether in the monastery or on tour, publicly
worships a large number of idols, Sarada amongst them towei;ing high
above the rest. For this reason some scholars say ^afikara was a ^akta.
/ _
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 175
his school ; and, certainly, the extraordinary influence which
his teaching had in many parts of India in the following
centuries forms the best corroboration of the claim. Thus, it
is clear that the whole vast body of Smarta householders in
the South and in Gujarat, and many also throughout the
North, became his disciples, and recognized him as their
religious head. To this day the superior of the monastery in
Sringerl, who always bears the honoured name, Sankara, is
Pontiff, not only of all advaita sannyasis, but of all the Smartas
of the South and the West as well. Hence the immense
influence which the Sankara wields, and the wealth which
flows into the monastery. This connexion sheds light on
Sahkara's acceptance and defence of the main positions of
orthodox Hinduism in his Bhdshya,
But his teaching produced large results outside the immediate
circle of his pledged disciples. The Bhagavatas^ in every
part of the country, a Ramaite sect,^ which can be traced in
the literature, and which ought in all probability to be located
in the South, and, at the other extremity of India, the Saivas
of Kashmir,^'^ all fell under the spell of his philosophy, and
taught it, in purity or with modifications, for centuries.
§ 200. There are also widespread traditions * to the effect
that he persecuted the Buddhists and thje Jains and destroyed ,
their books, and cleansed the worship of a number of disrepu-
table Hindu sects. To one who for the first time reads the
Bhdshya these late stories may well seem foolish inventions ;
nor can any one accept them as they stand ; yet his connexions
with orthodox householders give a certain plausibility to the
statements. He may possibly have originated the Right-
hand movement among Saktas.^
^ See § 210. , '^ See § 219. ' See § 230.
* The two Sahkara-vijayas are clearly far from historical, yet they
reflect tradition, portions of which may be in the main true. The work
attributed to Madhava must have been written after that scholar's death ;
and both seem to have been provoked by the Manimahjari and the
Madhvavijaya : Krishnasamy Aiyar, 3 ; and see § 279.
» See § 317.,
/ _
\J6 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
There are some Hindu scholars who say that he originated
and enforced the Smarta rule of worshipping the five gods,^
but there is no evidence in support of the assertion.
§201. The next outstanding writer on the Vedanta is
Vachaspati Mi^ra, who occupies a very noticeable position.
He tells us himself that he belonged to Tirhut and that he
lived under a king named Nriga ; and in one of his books, the
Nydyasuchinibandha^ he gives A. D. 841 as the year in which
it was written.^ His home and his date are thus known. He
was a Smarta Brahman, and must have been a very capable
teacher of philosophy. He left seven books, all expository
works, which set forth, in clear and accurate philosophic
language, five out of the six orthodox philosophies of Hinduism,
the Vai^eshika being the only one of the six he did not
expound. He is thus a very striking figure. Every scholar
before his date is a controversialist, upholding his own school
against all comers, and fighting the teaching of every other
school. Vachaspati, on the other hand, knows no bias : he is
simply an honest expositor of real philosophic grasp and great
power of accurate expression. His books have therefore been
greatly admired and widely used as text-books since his day.
He wrote a commentary, the Bhdmatl^ on Sahkara's Bhdshya
which]^has been the most popular and useful of all the innu-
merable works written to expound that masterpiece, and has
been interpreted in turn by many scholiasts.
c. The Sdnkhya.
§ 202. The Sdnkkya-kdrikdy which, soon after it was
written, was honoured by an attack from the great Vasu-
bandhu, was translated into Chinese in the sixth century by
a Buddhist monk.^ Probably a little later, a scholar named
Gaudapada (seemingly not the same as Sahkara's parama-
guru) * wrote the Sdhkhya-kdrikd-bhdshya^ which is of con-
^ See § 207. * Woods, Yogci^ xxiii.
' Nanjio, 1300. Cf. Takakusu, BEFEO, IV. i.
* Jacobi,/^a6\ XXXIII. 52, «. 2 ; Keith, //?^5. 1916, 171 ; SS, 87.
/ —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 177
siderable importance in determining the precise meaning of
the principles summarized in the stanzas. Then about
A. D. 850 Vachaspati produced his Sdhkhya'tattva-kaumucRy
an exposition of the Kdrikd, which is regarded as one of the
most authoritative of Sankhya works, and has been expounded
in many super-commentaries.
d. The Yoga,
§ 203. There is a similar story to tell of the Yoga. A
Bhdshya on the Yogasutra was written some time after
A. D. 650 by an unknown writer, and Vachaspati wrote the
Tattva- Vaiidradty also an exposition of the Sutra, about
A»D. 850. Woods remarks:^
The Bhdshya and, still more, the Tativa- VaisdradiBXt masterpieces of
the philosophical style. They are far from being a loosely collected body
of glosses. Their excessively abbreviated and disconnected order of
words is intentional.
It is very noticeable that the fresh developments in Yoga
theory and practice reflected in the Tantras, Agamas, and
Samhitas do not seem to have produced the slightest effect on
the ancient school.
e. The Vaiseshika,
§ 204. There is only one Vaiseshika writer to be mentioned,
Pra^astapada, whose date is in the neighbourhood of A. D. 600,
and without whose Bhdshya the Vaiseshika-sutras would be
almost unintelligible. But another work, the original of which
is lost, survives in a translation: in A.D. 648 the pilgrim,
Hiouen Tsang, translated the Dasapaddrtha, said to be by
Jiianachandra, into Chinese.
f. The Nydya,
§ 205. The preceding chapter has shown that Vatsyayana's
Bhdshya, which lights up the obscurity of the Nydya-sutras,
belongs to the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. To
' Yoga, ix.
N
178 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
that we now add Uddyotakara's A^^^^-z'^r//^^, on th^Bhashya^
and Vachaspati's Nyaya-vdrtika-tdtparya-tlkdy the former from
about A. D. 650, the latter from about 840.
On these two closely related schools two significant facts
require to be chronicled here. First, with Pra^astapada, the
atomic school becomes frankly theistic, and about the same
time both schools become closely connected with the Pa^upata
sect.^ Secondly, the question has been seriously raised,
whether the new doctrine of inference called vydpti^ which
appears in Indian logical treatises at this time, is not due to
the influence of the Aristotelian logic.^
The study of logic in early India was greatly enriched by
the labours of numerous Buddhist and Jain thinkers. Of all
these scholars the most influential by far was the Buddhist
Dignaga, who flourished before the middle of the sixth
century ; but the first Jain logician, Siddhasena Divakara,
lived probably a centuiy earlier, and later Jain thinkers did
good service.^
B. The Purdnas,
§ 206. All the Puranas, except the Bhdgavata^ seem to have
been in existence by the end of this period, and probably
earlier. It is also probable that there was an authoritative
list of the eighteen, in which both the Siva and the Vdyu
would have a place. But, though the eighteen existed then,
all were not in the condition in which they are to-day.
Numerous sections, khandas, samhitas, and such like have
since then been foisted on the original texts, and large portions
of the originals have been lost, either through accident or
deliberate sectarian malice.
The Garuda P, is clearly a manual compiled for the use of
Smarta priests ; for it contains detailed instructions for the
worship of the five gods, and gives information in many other
^ Keith, /^^5. 1914, 1097. « lb. 1096.
^ Vidyabhushan^ MSIL. 22-55; ^o.
* Chaps. 16; ly^ 22-24; 28-40; 42.
v.
/ _
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 179
subjects which a practising priest would want to have. The
A^ni is also a Smarta document ; for it gives detailed instruc-
tions about the worship of the five gods ; ^ but it may be
meant for the use of Bhagavata priests ; ^ for it gives far more
attention to Vishnu than to the other four, it contains a list of
Paiicharatra Samhitas,^ which is possible in a Bhagavata, but
not in a purely Smarta work, and it uses the Bhagavata
mantra at several points.* Both Puranas show very distinctly
the influence of the Sakta teaching given in the Agamas,
Tantras, and Samhitas. Of the original character of the
Ndrada, Vardha, Vdmana^ and Brahmavaivarta Puranas it is
hard to speak with certainty, but all seem to have contained
Vaishnava material.^ The Siva^ Linga^ and Kurma Puranas
are all Saiva in general character, and all three ^ contain
copies of certain parts of the Lakuli^a-Pa^upata material
which seems to have appeared first in the Vdyu? Of the
Skanda ^ it is not possible to speak with certainty.
«
C. Smdrtas and their Literature,
§ 207. At an early date some organizing genius persuaded
the Smartas to make it a regular practice to worship the five
gods, pahcha deva, Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganej^, in
what is called Panchdyatana Pujd^ but the precise time and
the name of the organizer are unknown. Many Smartas say
that it was Sahkara who imposed the rule ; some say Kuma-
rila; while others say the practice is of still earlier origin.
But what is clear from the list itself is that the rule was
formed at a time when Brahma had already fallen into the
^ Chaps. 21; 23; 69; 71; 73 j 74.
' Bhagavatas often act as archakas, * Chap. 39.
* e. g. in chaps. 27 and 48.
^ See the quotations in Madhva*s Brahmasutra-bhashya,
® Siva^ Uttarardha, IX, ix; Lihga^ VII ; Kiirma, LII. ,
'^'^ SeeJ^ 165: * But see H. P. Sastri, I. Hi.
• That 1s, * Five-Shrines Worship*. The methods of the worship as
practised to-day explain the name. See § 352. For the word see Jacob,
EAU.iyi.
N 2
i8o THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
background, and the five gods were prominent. The evidence
contained in this chapter makes it probable that that was true
by the opening of the seventh century ; but it is impossible
to give anything like a definite date. It is also essential to
notice that the five are merely a parichayat representing all
the gods : the orthodox man recognizes the whole pantheon ;
and, while he worships the five, he may worship as many more
as he likes. Towards the end of this period five Upanishads,
one on each of the divinities, were put together and called the
Atharvasiras U} They are doubtless all founded on sectarian
Upanishads.
§ 208. It will be at once recognized that Sankara's philoso-
phical position fits the Smarta conception of the pantheon
perfectly. From the point of view of religious practice, the
only difference between the advaita Vedanta and the Karma
Mimamsa lies in the recognition of the Absolute behind all
the gods. Thus it is not at all strange that Saiikara won over
a large number of Smartas to the acceptance of his system.
To this day, in most parts of South India and Gujarat, the
word Smarta implies allegiance to Sahkara as well as to the
five gods and to Vedic observance.
§209. For the twice-born the most interesting literature
published during the period would be the law-books and the
works on the Mimamsa. The Ndrada and the Brihaspatizxt,
the chief legal smritis produced at this time, but there were
many others. The publication of the great works of.Prabha-
kara and Kumarila on the Karma Mimamsa would be of great
interest to all Srautas and Smartas. Both these writers, and
many other notable scholars of the period, Prafastapada,
Vatsyayana, Udyotakara, and Vachaspati Mi^ra were either
Srautas or Smartas. The Garuda P,^ seems to be a manual
written for Smarta priests.
* Weber, NIL, 170; Kennedy, HM. 346, &c.
2 See § 206.
/ .
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS i8i
D. Vaishnava Literature.
a. Bhdgavata Literature,
§ aio. It seems clear that the Bhagavatas followed the
Smartas in the two steps we have just dealt with : they
accepted the worship of the five gods and th^advaita Vedanta.
Yet it seems as if their acceptance of the five gods had been
less serious than their recognition of Siva as equivalent to
Vishnu : so much seems to be implied in the practice of the
sect to-day. Probably about the end of this period, after the
adoption of Sankara's system, some Bhagavata scholar wrote
the Skanda U,} to establish the truth of the doctrine of the
identity of Vishnu and Siva. The philosophy is advaita, and
the classical passage in the Harivainsa on the subject is
utilized. A Bhagavata S?" is mentioned among the Vaishnava
Samhitas, which may be a Bhagavata document.
§aii. Many Bhagavatas are temple ministrants in South
India to-day, and there is evidence which tends to suggest
that in early times still larger numbers performed that service.
The Agni P. seems to be a manual prepared for the use of
Bhagavata priests, as is suggested above.^ In the Tamil
countiy to-day, while in most temples the ritual is conducted
in accordance with the rules laid down in the Paricharatra
Samhitas, there are a few temples in which Vaikhanasa
Saihhitas are used. This is true of the shrine of Venkate^vara
on Tirupati hill, and of the temples in Conjeeveram, and
Sriperumbudur. What the age of these Sarhhitas may be, is
not yet known. They differ from the main group first of all
in points of ritual. But there is a far more serious distinction :
Appaya Dikshita tells us that Vaikhanasa manuals are con-
sistent with Vedic usage while Pancharatra Samhitas are
unorthodox.* Now, it is clear that in the temple of Venkate-
svara, in which the Vaikhanasa ritual is followed to this day,
Siva and Vishnu were worshipped as equal until Ramanuja
» Jacob, £"^6^. 15. ^ * No. 105 in Schrader's list, IP AS, 8.
' § 206. ^ See the passage quoted by Chanda, lAR, 100.
/ —
i82 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
interfered.^ Thus we can scarcely be wrong in concludit^
that the Vaikhanasa Samhitas have for centuries been used by
Bhagavata archakas ^ for the ritual. It also seems clear that
there were many more temples in which Vishnu and Siva were
adored as equal— i.e. Bhagavata shrines — during this period
than there are to-day ; for many such temples are mentioned
in the hymns of the Alvars * ; and we know that Ramanuja
sought to substitute Pancharatra for Vaikhanasa ritual wherever
he went. What is the relation between these manuals and the
Vaikhanasa-sutras ? *
b. Pancharatra Literature.
§ 21 2. The rise of the Vaishnava, or Pancharatra, Samhitas^
is the most notable fact in the Vishnuite history of the period,
but it is not yet possible to state with certainty when or where
they were written. They can be traced in Kashmir in the
tenth century, in the Tamil country in the eleventh,® and at
later dates in South Kanara,*^ but clear references at earlier
dates are still lacking. The utmost we can say is that their
striking similarity to the Saiva Agamas and to the early
Tantrik literature, both Hindu and Buddhist, suggests that
the earliest of them arose about the same time as these three
literatures, i. e. probably between A. D. 600 and 800, and that
there is nothing in the general character of the books that is
opposed to such a date. More precise evidence may become
available any day.^ ^
The Samhitas are supposed to number 108; but about
double that number of names are known. Lists occur in four
^ Govindacharya, ^.142. 'I. e. temple-ministrants.
^ Krishna ^astri, SIL 12. * See § 160.
^ In this connexion I am much indebted to Dr. Schrader's excellent
monograph, Introduction to the Pancharatra and the Ahirbudhnya
Samhitd] also to Govindacharya's ^xt. JRAS, 191 1, 935 ff.; and to
the relevant section in Iyengar's Outlines.
« Schrader, y/'^^. 17 f
''In Madhva*s Bhashya on the Vedanta-sutras.
* A careful survey of Vaishnava Tamil literature would likely provide
some evidence! Sankara's statement about iSandilya, Bhashya^ II. IL 45,
in all probability rests on a Samhita. *' *
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 183
Samhitas, three containing over 100 names each, the fourth
containing only 34. Taking the three long lists first, 52 names
are common ; taking all four, only 11 are common. The results
are thus rather hazy. Further, these books have suffered
from interpolation in precisely the same way as the Puranas.
Hence, it is not strange that the few scholars who have given
some time to their study do not agree in their conclusions as
to which are the earliest documents.^
§ 213. It is probably true that each Samhita, even in its
earliest form, represented some sectarian division or some
variety of doctrine or worship. Thus one of the Agastya
Sarhhitas is a Ramaite work ; it is probable that the Nara-
simka sprang from the special cult of the Narasimha incarna-
tion, which we deal with elsewhere ; and the Dattdtreya^ the
Ganesay and the Saura may reflect the worship of Datta-
treya, Gane^a, and the Sun. That later developments are
reflected in the Samhita literature is plain. Ramanuja's stay
at Melkote is described in several works ; while Madhva
doctrine obtrudes itself distinctly in others. The literature
will not be fully intelligible until these sectarian distinctions
are realized. Schrader holds that most of the literature was
produced in the north, but believes that several of the works
belong to the Tamil south, notably livara, Upendra^ and Brihad
Brahma.^ He may be right, but, on the other hand, these
may be northern works interpolated in the south.
§ 214. The Samhitas are historically noteworthy in two
ways. They mark first the emergence of Sakta principles in
the Vaishnava sect. But they are also notable as being the
first manuals formed to express both the beliefs and the
practice of Vaishnavas. In the matter of practice they are as
it were the Kalpasutras of the Vaishnavas.^ Like the
* Schrader (IP AS, 20) lakes the Paushkara, Vardha, and Brahma a?
the earliest of all, while Iyengar (Outlines, 175) regards the Lakshnii
as * decidedly very old *, and says that the Padma is * perhaps the oldest * of
all. With this latter judgement my friend, Mr. A. Govindacharya Svamin
of Mysore city, agrees.
^ I PAS, 16 f. ' Govindacharya, /i?^5. 191 1, 940.
1 84 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
Saiva Agamas, the Samhitas are said to consist of four
sections :
Jhdna-pdda : philosophical theology.
Yoga-pdda : the new yoga teaching and practice.
Kriyd'pada : the building of temples and the making of
images.
Charyd-pdda : religious practice.
Only two Samhitas, however, are known which are actually
divided in this way, the Padma and the Vishnutattva. Even
those which deal with all the four categories are arranged in
other ways; and many deal only with Kriya and Charya.
Indeed a very large part of all the material of the Samhitas
deals with practice. This explains why they were so long
kept secret.
§215. The. theology of the chief Samhitas is essentially
a development of the teaching of the Narayaniya episode of
the Epic with the addition of a considerable Sakta element.
The basis of the philosophy is the theistic Y(^a. Our brief
outline of the teaching is taken from Dr. Schrader's excellent
analysis : — In the supreme state Vishnu and his Sakti ^ are one
Paramatman without distinction. It is in creation that
they become distinguishable. Primary Creation falls into
two stages, and Secondary Creation, which takes place
36,000 times between two Primary Creations, also falls
into two.
A. In the first stage of Primary Creation the Sakti awakes
as if from sleep in her two aspects, kriy^, action, and bhuti^
becoming, and manifests the six guna^ i.e. attributes, of her
Lord, viz. knowledge, ynrestricted power, energy, strength,
virility, splendour. These six together constitute Vasudeva,
the first vyuha^, and his ^akti Lakshmi. The six fall into
pairs, and from them emanate in order Saihkarshana,
Pradyumna, and Aniruddha, the second, third, and fourth
vyuhas, and their Saktis. From the vyuhas proceed twelve
^ See § 168. « See § 106.
THE SAKTA systems 185
sub-vyuhas and twelve Vidye^varas. In this stage of creation
are produced also the vibhava.s, or incarnations of Vishnu,
thirty-nine in number, and Vaikuntha, Highest Heaven, with
all its dwellers.
B. In the second stage of Primary Creation the bhuti aspect
of the Sakti is manifested in the grosser forms, Kutastha
Purusha and Maya Sakti. The Kutastha ^Purusha is the
aggregate of individual souls, massed together like bees, while
the Maya^ is the immaterial source of the universe. From
her is produced Niyata, the regulator of all things ; from
Niyata Kala, transcendental Time, regarded as a driving
force; and from Kala the Guna-body, whence the three
Sankhyan gunas emanate and coalesce into Mulaprakriti, the
impalpable source of material things. All these creations
remain in existence from the time they are created until the
time of Universal Dissolution, Mahapralaya.
C. The first stage of each Secondary Creation corresponds
very closely with the Sankhyan evolution. Yet there are
differences; the Vaishnava system starts not only with the
Mulaprakriti and Purusha but with Kala also, and the
Purusha is the one Kutastha Purusha instead of an infinite
number of souls. The other differences need not detain us.
D. The five gross elements, ether, air, light, water, and
earth, having been produced, coalesce into a mass, and the
world-egg, with the creator god, Brahma, the fifth vyuha,
in it, is produced, or, according to certain Samhitas, innu-
merable world-eggs ; and thereafter there come the details of
creation.
Souls are of four classes, the liberated, those fit for libera-
tion, the ever-bound, and those fit for darkness. Predesti-
nation is thus clearly taught. A soul reaches knowlege and
liberation by the grace of the Lord, and he is not merged
in him but joins him in Vaikuntha. A few Samhitas are so
advaitic in tone as to approach the idea of the absolute
identity of the soul and God, but the general teaching clearly
recognizes the soul as distinct. The soul is atomic in size.
t _
i86 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
but when liberated is omniscient and in a sense also omni-
potent and omnipresent.
The doctrine of the channels and centres of occult force in
the human body with its method of Yoga practice and
miraculous results, which we describe below ^ as found in the
Sakta system, appears in the same form in these Vaishnava
works.^ The doctrines of mantra^and yantra in the Samhitas
are indistinguishable from the Sakta teaching described
below.^ Magic in all its forms, with innumerable spells and
rites and talismans, is carefully described and eagerly com-
mended. The great sectarian mantras, Om namo Bhagavate
Vdsudevdya (Bhagavata), Om namo Ndrdyandya (Srl-
Vaishnava), and the famous mantra of Narasimha are all
adored and studied and expounded in a thousand ways.
The sect-mark of the Sri-Vaishnavas of South India consists
of two white curving lines, like the outline of a vase, and
a single red vertical line set in the centre and meeting the
white lines at the base. The white lines represent Vishnu,
the red line his ^akti, in accordance with the Sakta doctrine
of creation. The Samhitas ordain that Vaishnavas shall not
only paint the sect-mark on the brow and elsewhere, but shall
also brand the symbols of Vishnu on the body with red-hot
irons. The twice-born Vaishnava is expected to select a guru
and receive initiation, dtkshdy from him. Initiation consists
of five acts, Tdpa, branding the symbols on the body, Pundra^
painting the sect-mark, Ndma^ taking a name, Mantra^
reception of the formula of adoration, Ydga^ worship.* There
is nothing in Vaishnavism that corresponds with chakra-pujd^
and only vegetarian offerings are allowed in the temples.
The strict Vaishnava uses only vegetarian diet. The Paiicha-
ratra system is still unorthodox in these manuals,* as we
found it to be in the Epic.
The religion of the Samhitas is open to all four Hindu
^ See § 232. * Schrader, IP AS. 118 ff.
' § 232. * Gk)vindacharya,/^-4»S'. 191 1, 946.
6 See § 234. « Schrader, IP AS. 97.
THE SAKTA systems 187
castes without distinction, but not to outcastes. The position
of the Gttd ^ in this matter is retained. •
§216. In the Tamil south, alongside of the Paiicharatra
manuals, about a dozen Samhitas are found, which are called
Vaikhanasa. They are discussed above.*
We now deal briefly with the few local groups or sub-sects
which can be distinguished at this stage in Vaishnava history.
I. Tamil Vaisknavas.
§ 217. We begin- with the Tamil country. From the
seventh to the tenth century there seems to have been a
succession of poet-singers in Tamil-land who wandered about
from shrine to shrine, composing hymns and singing in
ecstasy before the images of their loved divinity. Many
were Saivas, and many were Vaishnavas. Of the latter
twelve are specially remembered, and honoured under the
title of Alvars. Their religion was above all a passionate
emotion. Their chief joy was to gaze into the divine eyes of
a favourite image, and to pour out their praises in music and
song. Often, after a long absence, the poet's feeling was too
much for him, and he fell unconscious on the temple-floor
before the image, stunned by the flood of his emotions, or,
during the night, he would fall sick with longing for the
beautiful face which he could not see until the temple-doors
were opened in the morning. They taught Outcastes, and
some of them are said to have been Outcastes. Apart from
local legends and epithets suggested by the temples or the
forms of the images, their poems show only the influence of
the Epics and early Puranas. The Samhitas were probably
late in pepetrating to the Tamil south. Yet these men have
been regarded as the teachers of the Sri- Vaishnava sect.
Their hymns have a great and honoured place in the training
of scholars and in public worship, and their images are wor-
shipped in the temples. The following is the list of their
* ^
i88 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
names in the traditional order of their appearance: — i. Poy-
gaiar, 2. Bhutattu, 3. Peyar, 4. Tirumalisai, 5. Sathakopa or
Nammalvar, 6. Madhurakavi, 7. Kula^ekhar, 8. Periyar,
9. Andal, 10. Tondarippodi, 11. Tiruppanar, 12. Tirumangai.
One of these, Andal, was a woman. Tirumangai and Nam-
majvar are the greatest, and Nammalvar is the most famous
of all. There is no certainty yet as to the chronology of the
Alvars. Barnett ^ suggests that Tirumangai and Nammalvar
belong to the eighth century or thereabouts, but other dates
are proposed by other scholars.^
There are two Upanishads which probably belong to this
period, and which are both devoted to the Narayana-mantra,
Om namo Ndrdyandya^ namely the Ndrdyana and the Atma-
bodha Upanishads.* The SrI-Vaishnava sect, which took definite
shape among Tamil Vaishnavas during the next period, use this
formula as their sect-mantra. Thus the Upanishads are probably
connected with the sect.
2. The Narasimha Sect,
§218. The date of the Nrisimha-tdpantya Upanishads*
makes it plain that the Nrisimha, or Narasimha, sect which
worshipped the Man-lion incarnation of Vishnu, must have
been organized, at the latest, quite early in this period. This
god is recognized all over India, but traces of his worship. are
far more abundant in the south than the north ; and he is still
the family god of many families in the south. Yet we must
not assume that the sect was founded in the south. The
sectarian mantra is an anushtubh verse, called the royal
mantra, mantrardja^ of Nrisimha, and it is accompanied by
four ancillary mantras. The chief scripture of the sect is the
pair of Upanishads already mentioned. The first, called the
^ BMCTB.7.
' K. Aiyangar, A I, 220, 377 ; S. Aiyangar, TS, 299.
» Deussen, SUV, 747 ff.
* As they were expounded by Gaudapada about A. D. 750 or rather later,
they cannot be dated later than the seventh century. See Deussen, SUV.
752 ff.
THE SAKTA systems 189
Nrisimha-purva'tdpaniya^ is in two parts, the first of which
glorifies the royal mantra by mystic identifications and inter-
pretations, and also the four Ahga mantras, while the second
gives directions for the making, by means of the royal mantra
of Nrisimha and three other famous Vaishnava mantras, of
a diagram, yantra^ which, worn on the neck, the arm, or in
a lock of hair, will prove a potent amulet. The second
Upanishad, called the Nrisimka-uttara-tdpaniya, also en-
courages the cult of the royal mantra, but its emphasis falls
on the sectarian theology, in which Nrisimha is identified with
the supreme Brahman, the Atman, and the syllable Om,
Both Upanishads were expounded by Gaudapada, and the
first at least by Sankara. The use of the famous mantraraja
was not confined to the sect ; three chapters are devoted to
its exposition in the Ahirbtcdhnya S} The popularity of the
Nrisimha Upanishads led to their being imitated in other
sects ; the most noteworthy of these copies are the Rdma^
Ganapatiy Gopdla, and Tripurd Tdpaniya Upanishads.^
There are two other documents belonging to the sect which
in all probability come from this period, the Nrisimha
Upapurdna^ and the Nrisimha S\^ The former is men-
tioned by Alberuni in a.d. 1030,^ so that it almost certainly
belongs to the period, but there is more doubt about the
latter, as the earliest known reference to it is in Vedanta
Desika of the fourteenth century.
3. The Rdma Sect
§219. In a late interpolated passage in Valmiki's Rdmd-
yana^ Rama is hailed as the one eternal God, and his
devotees are mentioned, but there is no evidence that an
organized Ramaite sect existed in those early days. But
there need be no doubt about the existence of such a sect in
this period. It is implied in the Rdma-purva-tdpanlya
^ Chaps. 54 to 56. See Schrader, IP AS, 143.
' See § 219; § 239; § 280; § 316.. » Eggeling, SMIO, 3515.
* Schrader, IP AS. 8, 18. ^ Sachau, I. 130.
• VI. 119: see § 107.
I90 THE SAKTA systems
Upanishad,^ which sets Rama forth as an incarnation of
Brahman, expounds a royal mantra — Ram Rdntdya namah—
and describes a mystic diagram which leads to release and
other blessings. A secret alphabet is also taught as the
vehicle of secret mantras. The Rdma-uttara'tdpantya
Upanishad^ consists mostly of passages taken from earlier
Upanishads, and may belong to a later date. One of the
Vaishnava Samhitas, the Agastya-Sutikskna Samvdda? is
a Ramaite work, and almost certainly belongs to, this period ;
for it is referred to and quoted in the Adhydtnta Rdmdyana.^
Dr. Schrader's assumption that the worship of Rama is a
modern growth, and that a Ramaite Samhita must therefore
be a very recent production, is unfounded, for there is plenty
of evidence that Rama has been continuously worshipped
from very early times. But until this and other Samhitas
bearing Ramaite names ^ are carefully examined, the question
of their date must remain in doubt.
§ cjcjo. We may also reasonably ask whether there was not
a Dattatreya sect. This seems to be implied by what is
contained in the Yddava-giri Mdhdtntya in the Ndrada and
Matsya Puranas, by various references elsewhere to DattaV
treya, and by what the Manbhaus say.
E. Saiva Literature,
\^%\. It is not yet possible to say definitely how many
Saiva sects used or produced Agamas. One is inclined to
suggest, very tentatively, a division of mediaeval Saivas into
two groups as under : —
/I. Pasupatas.
2. Lakuli^a-Fasupatas.
3. Kapalikas.
4. Nathas.
5. Gorakshanathls.
\6. Rase^varas.
^ Deussen, SUV. 802. * lb. 818. » Schradcr, IP AS. 6, 19.
* See § 294. ^ Schrader, IP AS, nos. 26, loi, 133 in list, pp. 6 to 9.
a. Pa^upata Saivas -<
/ —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 191
I. Sanskrit School of Saiva Sid dhanta.
, * . o • I ^« Tamil Saivas.
b. Agamic Saivas \ t^ , . ^ .
' 3. Kashmir Saivas.
4. Vira Saivas.
It is clear that the second group were closely allied, and that
they accepted the Aganias. The Tamil and Vira Saivas call
themselves Mahe^varas to-day and do not call themselves
Pasupatas, although their theology depends on the Pa^upata
doctrine of the Epic. Their writers reject the doctrine of the
incarnations of Siva as taught by the Pasupatas, and tell,
instead, stories of his having appeared in numerous theophanies.
The first group were also closely connected in several ways,
and they do not seem to have recognized the Agamas ; but
as only weak remnants of them have survived until our days,
it is difficult to get clear information. We now deal with the
sects as far as we can trace them.
a. Pdsupata Saivas.
§ 222. There is first the parent sect of Pasupatas. Pra^as-
tapada, the early commentator on the Vaiieskika-sutra, was
a Saiva, and almost certainly a PaiSupata, and Bharadvaja,
i. e. Uddyotakara, the author of the gloss on the Nydya-bhashyay
is definitely called Pa^upatacharya. Bana and Hiouen Tsang
both refer to the Pasupatas as one of the prominent sects of the
time. Sankara criticizes them in his Bhdshya^ on the ground
that their doctrine of God as the operative but not the
material cause of the world stands in opposition to Upanishad
doctrine.
I. The Lakullsas.
§ 223. The Lakull^a system, which seems to be a specialized
form of the Pasupata,^ arose in Gujarat, as we have seen, at
a very early date, and probably developed a philosophical
literature before the opening of the seventh century. Conse-
quently they did not accept the new teaching of the Saiva
^ Bhandarkar believes there is but the one system, called indifferently
Pasupata, Lakulisa, or Lakull^a-Pasupata. ,
/ .
192 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
Agamas. During this period the sect spread as far south as
Mysore and also into Rajputana. The lists of the incarnations
of Siva, which are copied in the Linga and Kurma Puranas
from the Vdyti^ and which mention Lakuli, are Lakuli^a
documents.^ There is an image of Lakuli^a, which belongs
to the seventh century, at Jharapatan in Gujarat.
2. The Kdpdlikas,
\%i^t. The Kapalikas, i.e. the skull-men, are another
specialization of the Pasupatas, but it is hard to say whether
they were ever a sect. The evidence suggests that they have
never been more than an order of ascetics. In doctrine and
practice they stand in the closest possible relation to the Left-
hand Saktas. They seem to have been organized about the
very beginning of this period. An inscription,^ dating from
the first half of the seventh century, mentions the god
Kapale^vara and his ascetics. In the Mdlatl-Madhava^ a
drama produced early in the eighth century,^ one of the chief
characters is Aghoraghanta, a Kapalika ascetic, who acts as
priest of the goddess Chamunda in a royal city, and is con-
nected with the great Saiva shrine, SrI-Saila, in the Telugu
country. Kapala-Kundala, i.e. Skull-earring, is a nun, a
devotee of the goddess, and a pupil of Aghoraghanta. Both
practise yoga, and through it have won miraculous powers.
The beliefs they hold are full of Sakta ideas, and amongst
their practices is human sacrifice. Aghoraghanta plots to
sacrifice the heroine of the play to Chamunda, but is finally
killed by the hero. The nun wears a necklace of skulls, and
carries a heavy rod from which hangs a string of bells.
3. The Ndthas,
The Nathas are extremely hard to get hold of. The
Gorakshanathis, a special sect derived from them, are oaivas,
while modern Nathas, e.g. Bhaskararaya of Tanjore, are
Saktas.
^ See § 227. * Bhandarkarf VS. 118.
3 ERE. IV. 886 ; V. A. Smith, EHL 3, 378.
t —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 193
b. Agamic Saivas,
§ ^25. The rise of the Agamas is the chief literary event in
the history of Saivism during this period. According to
tradition there are twenty-eight of these manuals, divided as
under ^ : —
i. Saivic: Kamika, Yogaja, Chintya, Karana, Ajita,
Dipta, Sukshma, Sahasra, Arhsuman, Sup-
rabha (Suprabheda).
ii. Raudric : Vijaya, Ni^vasa, Svayambhuva, Agneyaka,
'Bhadra, Raurava, Makuta, Vimala, Chan-
drahasa (Chandrajnana), Mukhayugbimba
(Mukhabimba), Udglta (Prodglta), Lalita,
Siddha, Santana, Narasirhha (Sarvokta or
Sarvottara), Parame^vara, Kirana, Para
(Vatula).
Each of these Agamas is then attended by a group of Upa-
gamas, the total number contained in the list amounting to 198.
The date of the earliest of these manuals is still obscure.
The Tamil poets, Tirumular, who lived somewhere about
A.D. 800, Sundarar, who was either a contemporary of
Tirumular or came a little later, and Manikka Vachakar,
whose date is not far removed from A.D. 900, all refer to the
Agamas, and both Tirumular and Manikka use much of their
phraseology.* Mr. J. C. Chatterji tells us ^ that the Siva-sutras
were promulgated in Kashmir by Vasugupta about A.D. 850
with the express purpose of substituting an advaita philosophy
for the more or less dualistic teaching of the Agamas, which
were then the foundation of the Saivism of Kashmir. This
statement is supported by references to two Agamas, the
* Ramana's Tr. of Appayadlkshita's Gloss on Srlkantha's Saiva-
bhashya,
* 1 owe this valuable information about Tirumular and Sundarar to my
friend, the Rev. Francis Kingsbury of Bangalore. For these poets see § 229.
»yr5. 7-io;.36(a).
O
194 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
Matahga ^ and the Svayambhuva, in Somananda of Kashmir,^
who flourished towards the end of the ninth century, and by
numerous quotations in Kshemaraja,^ another Kashmir writer
belonging to the eleventh century. The earliest known MS.,
a copy of the Kirana^ is dated A j). 924.^ From these facts
we may conjecture that the earliest Agamas, like the Hindu
and Buddhist Tantras, are to be assigned to the seventh and
eighth centuries, yet, until more definite evidence becomes
available, we must not say more. No scholar has as yet
ventured an opinion as to which of the Agamas are oldest.
§ 226. The Agamas mark the appearance of Sakta ideas
among Saivas, and are also the earliest of their codes of
temple-building, image-making, and religious practice. Their
contents are supposed to fall into four divisions, like the
Samhitas. The following sketch of the teaching of the
Agamas is drawn from Iyengar s account,^ which is based on
the Mrigendra A., the first, or knowledge, section of the
Kdmika, the first Agama. The whole system is condensed
in the first verse of the work: * Siva is beginningless, free
from defects, the all-knower. He removes from the in-
finitesimal soul the web of bonds that obscure its nature.'
He can create both gradually and suddenly, because creation
is of that double character, and he possesses an eternal instru-
ment for the work, the Sakti, who is a conscious being an^d at
the same time the Lord's body. His body is all energy
(^aktl) ; it is composed of the five mantras. Being so utterly
different from our body, no evils or obstructions can attach
themselves to it. Consciousness exists in the atman at all
times and on all sides, perfect in Siva and in the liberated,
but not manifest in the unliberated, because in them obscured.
Siva-^akti is a category intermediate between Siva, who is
pure consciousness, and Matter, which is unconscious. She is
the cause of the bondage of all beings and also of their release.
* This is one of the Upagamas, and is dependent on the Parame-
svara A.
^ KS\ iq. » Hall, pp. 197-8.
* H. P. Sastrl, II. xxiv. ^ Outlines^ 151 fF.
■•«»
/ —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 195
She IS the eternal Word, the subtle link between concept and
utterance. To this is attached the whole doctrine of mantras.^
The theory of the existence of a system of yogic nerves and
circles in the body ^ is taught.
Siva is Pasupati, Lord of flocks. Hence man is called
Pa^u, the Lord's creature.^ His body is unconscious; he
himself is conscious. The Pa^u is, in his own nature, the
abode of eternal and omnipresent Chit^akti, mind-energy.
But the Pa^u is bound by Pasa, the bond, and it is threefold,
-^«^2/^, Ignorance, Karma^ the result of. his action, Maya, the
material cause of the world. This last bond, Maya, does not
bear the meaning that it does in Sankara's system. It stands
for the beclouding, deceiving, materializing influence of the
visible world. Fettered by these bonds, the pa^u is a finite,
restricted being, bounded by his body. The Sakti is included
in these bonds, and through them the Lord's work of obscura-
tion of souls is carried out. The Sakti evolves also into
Anugraha, the grace of the Lord, and by the gradual
destruction of the bonds leads the soul to liberation. * It is
revealed that Identity with Siva results, when all fetters are
removed/
But while this may stand as an approximation to the teach-
ing of the earliest Agamas, it is of importance to recognize
that they are not a uniform body. Several sects are represented
in them, and until these differences are clearly recognized we
shall have no accurate conception of Agamic teaching.
§ 227. The Lihga and Kurma Pur anas are Saiva docu-
ments comparable with the Vaishnava Agni and Garuda in •
general character. It is also probable that, like them, they
come from the middle of the period ; for they reflect the
teaching of the Agamas and the Tantras and refer to some
of these texts. Both Puranas* repeat with alterations arid
* See the account of mantras drawn from the Kirana Agama in H. P.
^astri, II. xxvi. '^ See § 232. * But see § 109.
* Linga, XXIV. 124-33; Kurma, I. liii. These texts are quoted by
Ramana in his Tr. of Appaya Dikshita on the Saiva Bhdshya^ pp. 13-14.
He quotes all the texts, except the original one in the Vdyu,
o a
196 THE SAKTA systems
additions the account of the twenty-eight incarnations of Siva
and their disciples from the Vayu.\ In the Lihga there is
a long dissertation on the mystic meaning of the word Om
and of the letters of the alphabet,*^ in the manner of Sakta
treatises,^ while in the Kurma ^ a number of the Sakta Tantras
are referred to, and the worship of the Saktis is recommended.
It is not yet known which Saiva sects these documents come
from, except that the list of incarnations is Lakullsa.
§ 228. The smearing of the body with ashes was pait of
the practice of Pasupata ascetics from the time of the Athar-
vasiras U^ at least ; and the sect-mark is now universally
made with ashes. In all the sects, these marks seem to date
from the first part of this period, when the new manuals taught
the power of magic diagrams. The Saiva sect-mark, the
Tripundra, as it is called, consists of three lines of ash drawn
by the fingers horizontally across the brow, and often also
on the breast, arms, and other parts of the body as well. It
is thus probable that the Kdldgnirudra U.^ which is a mystic
meditation on the Tripundra, comes from the first half of our
period.
I.
Tamil Saivas.
§ 229. In the Tamil country the most noteworthy Saiva
personalities during these centuries are poets. There are first
of all three who are in every way parallel to the Vaishnava
Alvars, but they are not distinguished by any title. They
are called Nayanars, like other religious leaders, but if they
are spoken of as a distinct group, they are simply called The
Three, Their names are Nanasambandhar, Appar, and Sundara-
murti. The two former belong to the seventh, the last to the
eighth or ninth century. Like the Alvars, they were poet-
singers, filled with overflowing bhakti towards Siva. They
wandered from temple to temple, singing their hymns and
See § 165. 2 Muir, OST. IV. 329.
See I 232. * Chap. XII.
See § 112. « Deussen, SUV. 735.
t —
\
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 197
dancing in rapture before the images of Siva, the dancing
Lord, and his beloved Uma, and drew crowds after them.
They show no dependence on the Agamas, though Sundarar
mentions them, but use the Epics and the Puranas and express
the traditional piety and devotion of the community. Only
a few of their hymns have been translated into English.
Tirumuls^^ (c. A.D. 800), in his Tirumantram, is the earliest
Tamil poet who reflects the theology of the Agamas. His
work is a masterpiece as a poem, and it deals with practical '
religion.
Rather later there arose a still greater man, Manikka-
Vachakar, * whose utterances are rubies '. He lived about
A.D. 900,^ and left a large number of lyrical poems short and
long, which are known as the Tiru- Vdchakam, * The Sacred
Utterance '. He was a man of education and position con-
nected with Madura, but a sudden conversion, in which the
personal influence of a guru was dominant, led him to give
up his position and become a wandering devotee. That he
was a cultured man who entered fully into the heritage of
the work of those who preceded him is clear froni his poems.
Contents, style, diction, and mastery of metres all show the
accomplished poet. He uses freely the stores of the Epics,
the Puranas, and the Agamas, and also the very rich Tamil
literature that already lay behind him. He knew also how
to find poetry in local customs and homely stories, especially
the mass of legends that illustrate Siva's sacred sports. Over
all he threw the glamour of his genius. A considerable amount
of the technical theology of the Agamas appears in his lines,
and he frequently speaks of them as revealed by Siva. We
may also note his dislike for the Vedanta, which must mean
Sahkara's mdydvdda.
1 Barnett, BMCTB. 5 ; Frazer, ERE. V. 23.
'^ Barnett {BMCTB. 5 n,) says between A.D. 800 and 1000 ; Frazer and
others says between A. D. 800 and 900 {ERE. V. 23). Cf. S. Aiyangar,
r^., App. III.
/ _
T98 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
2. Kashmir Saivas.
§ J^30. In Kashmir the Saiva Agamas were accepted as
revelation and became the basis of all religious thought in the
Saiva community. Then about A.D. 850 the Siva-sutras were
promulgated in a mysterious way as a fresh utterance from
Siva ; and under the stimulus of this work a rich philosophical
literature continued to spring up for thiee centuries. The Siva-
sutras and the S panda- Kdrikas^ which expound them, are
rather practical in character, but by about A.D. 900 the Siva-
drishti of Somananda provided a more distinctly philosophical
groundwork for the system. The ontology is monistic, and
release depends upon a discipline which consists in the con-
tinuous recognition, //'^/;/^z^/^j/'^^, of man's identity with Siva.
Yet the world is not treated as a mere illusion. It is an
dbhdsa or manifestation of Siva through the Sakti, and is
present to his consciousness, though not in the form in which
it appears to the individual mind. The process of the evolu-
tion of the universe keeps in the main to the Sahkhya series,
but it has several interesting features of its own. The system
is called Trika^ because it deals with three principles, Siva,
Sakti, anu^ or Pati, pa^a, pa^u, and also Pratyabhijna from ks
law of recognition. An outline of the teaching may be found
in Madhava's Sarva-darsana-sahgraha^ or the details may be
studied in Chatterji's monograph.^ The system is distinctly
more monistic than the teaching of the Agamas, with which
the new literature struggles to show its full agreement. How
are we to account for the change? The activity of the great
Sahkara falls in the first half of the ninth century, and we
may be sure that the traditions are right when they say he
visited Kashmir during one of his controversial tours. It is
thus most probable that he influenced the Saiva leaders very
deeply and was the source of the stimulus which created the
Siva-sutra and the movement which followed.
* Kashmir Shawtsm,
THE SAKTA systems 199
i
F. Sdkta Literature,
a. The Tantras,
§ 231. The sect of Durga is now reorganized with a new
theology, a more varied cult, and a fresh literature. It is
called the Sakta sect. There is no authoritative ca'non of the
Tantras, the literature of the Saktas. In several places lists of
sixty-four Tantras are found, and one list contains three groups
of sixty-four,^ but these catalogues differ so seriously the 6ne
from the other that, as yet at least, they are of little help to
the student. Hundreds of Tantras are mentioned in the lists,
and, although many are lost for ever, a very large number
still survive. In addition there are several Sakta documents
scattered about in the Puranas, and numerous hymns in praise
of the goddess, lineal descendants of those already discussed,
are found in various places.
Only a very few of these authorities can be dated with any
certainty, but there are a number more whose age can be
approximately discerned. It is scarcely possible as yet to
classify the texts as belonging to the sub-sects^ references to
which are found from quite early times.^ The whole literature
awaits the toil of scholarly investigators. What we propose
to do is to give brief notices of all the important works whose
age is approximately known. In this way an outline of the
history will be afforded and a basis of study provided.
A MS. of the Kubjikdmata T. in Gupta character proves
that that work dates from the seventh century at latest. A
MS. of the Parafhesvaramata T. is dated A.D. 858, and a MS.
of the Mahdkaulajhdna Vinirnaya is quite as old,^ the works
themselves being probably a good deal older. A careful study
of these three Tantras would give a very full account of early
Sakta philosophy and worship. From the Kubjikdmata we
may conclude that a formed Sakta theology and ritual were
^ Avalon's Tantrik Texts ^ I. ii. ; Dutt*s Mahdninfdna T, v.
2 H. P. Sastri, I. Ixiv, Ixxviii.
^ lb. I. Ixxvii, Ixxviii ; II. xxi, xviii.
200 THE SAKTA systems
already in existence about A. D. 600. The Nisvdsatattva
Samhitd^ a MS. of which is believed to date from the eighth
century,^ gives detailed regulations for all aspects of Sakta life.
It is probable that a few more of the existing Tantras come
from this period, but, in the absence of clear evidence, it is
better to acknowledge our ignorance.
The Chandi-sataka of Bana belongs to the first half of the
seventh century, but it is rather a literary than a religious
work, and its value as a source is thus rather limited. The
Mdlafl-Mddhava of Bhavabhuti, a drama produced at Kanouj
early in the eighth century, gives in several scenes very vivid
pictures of the worship and the magic practices of the Saktas
of that time.
The contents of the Tantras might, like the contents of the
Vaishnava Sarhhitas and the Saiva Agamas, quite well be
divided into four classes, Theology, Yoga, Construction of
temples, images, &c., Religious practices. A very large pro-
portion of the matter falls, as a matter of fact, under the last
of the four heads. The Sakta system is fundamentally an
unlimited array of magic rites drawn from the practice of the
most ignorant and superstitious classes. The following seem
to be its more prominent features as represented in the early
books.
§ J^32. The system ^ sprang from Saivism, and the main cult
gathers round the wife of Siva, but it is found associated with
many other goddesses also. The genetic idea is this that,
since the eternal, inconceivable Supreme, Siva-Brahman, is
altogether inactive, while his spouse is pure activity, iakti^ the
creation and recreation of the world and all the work of divine
grace and liberation are her functions. She is thus of far
more importance than Siva : without his ^akti Siva is a corpse.^
From sakti comes the adjective sdktUy which forms the name
of the sect. The dogmatic runs as follows : the Sakti is one
with Brahman, but, in so far as she is differentiated, she is the
* H. P. ^astrl, I. Ixxvii. ^ See Avalon, TGL. Introd.
' Kubjikd T,, chap. i.
t —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS %o\
active aspect and manifests Brahman in all created things and
beings. From the point of view of religion she is superior
to Brahman. Philosophically, the system, like the sectarian
theology of the Puranas, follows the theistic Sankhya and
uses only a few Vedantic ideas. The Sakti is identified directly
or indirectly with Mula-prakriti : the whole worfd is merely
the unfolding of the Sakti.
The mystic and miraculous side of the Yoga system plays
a large part in Saktism. There are two starting-points. The
first is dependent on the analysis of the sacred syllable Om
already carried out in the Yoga Upanishads. Ndda^ bindu,
and blja are momenta in creation ; the Sakti is sabda, sound,
the eternal Word. Thus every letter of the alphabet is instinct
with the power of the Sakti ; and mantras, i.e. words or phrases
framed from these letters in accordance with their inner powers,
are omnipotent spells, which in Saktism are at the service of
the initiate. Every mantra is thus a divine creation, and the
whole body of the mantras is identical with the Sakti. The
vast majority of these mantras are nonsense syllables such as
Hrihg, Hung, Tha, Aing, Hum, Phat, sparks from the blazing
furnace of aboriginal superstition whence the system arose, or
from the equally superstitious- stores laid up in the Atharva-
veda. On the other hand, within the human frame, the system
teaches, there are immense numbers of minute channels or
threads of occult force, called nddi. The most important of
all, the Sushumna, is in the spinal cord. Connected with
these channels there are six great centres, or circles {chakra\
of occult force situated in the human trunk, the one above the
other. Each of these is described as a lotus. Muladhara, the
lowest and most important of all, contains Brahman in the
form of a linga, and the Devi lies asleep, coiled three and
a half times ^ round the linga like a serpent.^ In this posture
* This probably has reference to the three and a half morae of the
syllable Oth^ as taught in the Yoga Upanishads: § loo.
' See an image in G. N. Rao, Hindu Iconography ^ I. 328, and Buddhist
images in which a snake coils round the Buddha's limbs, Getty, GNB,
Plate VI.
/ —
ao2 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
she IS called Kundalini, the coiled one. By Sakta yoga she
may be waked and induced to ascend to the highest chakra.
These channels and centres form the basis of all the miracle-
working power which the initiate can achieve. They are
mentioned, along with the marvellous results that may be
gained through them, in the Mdlatl-Mddhava}
b. Mantra^ Yantra^ Mudrd,
§ '^ii' It is possible to trace in pre-Christian centuries the
rise of adoration mantras, brief expressions of the unutterable
reverence of the soul for the divine, or human, centre of the
faith. In this period the doctrine that the Devi is incarnate
in sound led to the conviction that the sectarian mantra is the
concentrated essence of all divine truth, and that it is instinct
with supematural power. Hence it was studied in every
possible way, worshipped with deepest reverence, and used for
the formation of spells and amulets.
Saktas made large use of mysterious diagrams, yantra and
mandaluy often engraved on metal plates, pdtra^ consecrated
pots and jars, ghata^ ritual gestures made with the fingers,
«
mudrdy and ritual movements of the hands, called nydsa^ for
the bringing of the goddess into the body.^ The belief in the
magic power of diagrams led to the use of sect-marks. These
are lines, curves, circles, spots, and designs which are painted
or smeared on the brow and other parts of the body, in order
to place the person under the protection of these powerful
instruments and the divinities they represent.^ The Sakta
sect-mark is the Saiva Tripundra.* All the sect-marks have
a phallic significance. They refer to the union of the god
with his ^akti.
c. The Cult.
§ 1^34. The new Sakta cult is fourfold. There is first the
public worship of the goddess in temples. From the very
* Act. V. at the beginning. ^ Avalon, TGL, xcii, xciv, cv, cvii.
^ This will be evident at once to any one who will take a look at Moor's
table of sects-marks, Hindu Pantheon.
* See § 228, and cf. Avalon, TGL. Ixviii.
t —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS ^03
time when the system was organized, the offerings were
vegetarian, animal, and human, and the three forms were prac-
tised until the British abolished human sacrifice.^ Vegetarian
offerings are laid before the image, while animals — male goats
and buffaloes — are usually sacrificed in the open air at a little
distance from it,^ and there also human sacrifice was carried
out. In the first half of the seventh century, during the reign
of the emperor Harsha, the greatest of all Chinese pilgrims,
Hiouen Tsang, was almost sacrificed to Durga.^ In the Mdlaft-
Mddhava ^ the heroine is seized by a priest of Chamunda, one
of the many forms of the goddess, and carried to her temple to
be sacrificed, but is rescued by the hero.
There is, secondly, Ckak^a-pujdy i. e. circle- worship, which
is the characteristic cult. It is now called Vamacharl, or Left-
hand.^ An equal number of men and women, who may belong
to any caste or castes, and may be near relatives — husband,
wife, mother, sister, brother — meet in secret, usually at night,
and sit- in a circle. The goddess may be represented by an
image or a yantra, which is actually a drawing of the pudendum
muliebre in the centre of a circle formed of nine pudenda.
The liturgy of the cult consists in the repetition of mantras,
the ritual in partaking of the five tattvas^ i. e. elements, viz.
wine, meat, fish, parched grain, and sexual intercourse.
The third form of the cult of the goddess is Sddhand^
i. e. Yoga practice meant to bring a man to perfection.
The fourth form is sorcery, whether for white or black
purposes. Detailed instruction is given in the Tantras. A
scene in the Mdlatl-Mddhava ^ takes us in the twilight to the
. burning-ground, fetid with the fumes of the funeral pyre, and
shows us the hero, Madhava, his hair ceremonially braided,
a sword in one hand and a piece of human flesh in the other.
* At both Vindhyachal and Kalighat the writer was told by the priests
that human sacrifice continued at these shrines until it was prohibited by
the British. Cf. ERE. VI. 850.
"^ The head is usually severed from the body by a sword or big knife.
' Watters, I. 360. •^■
* Act. V. » See § 317. * Act. V.
/ —
204 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
He has come to invoke the disembodied spirits that haunt the
spot, hoping to barter the human flesh for supernatural power
to aid him in winning Malati.
§ 235. It is evident on the surface that the major elements
in the cult have arisen from gross magic practice ; but the
goddess is philosophically described as the energy and the
manifestation of the supreme Brahman, and the.books repre-
sent the grossest elements of the chakra-pujd as potent means
for reaching release from transmigration.
§ 236. So far as one can discern at present, the earliest
worship of the goddess included animal, and probably human,
sacrifice, and the ritual use of flesh and wine. Whether it was
also stained by erotic practices we do not know. This early
cult seems to have persisted unchanged in the temples in
most parts of North India until the British put down human
sacrifice. When the new Sakta teaching appeared about
A.D. 600, the secret circle-worship was added to the old ritual,
and also the personal yoga-practice for the awakening of
Kundalinl. It is impossible to tell how widely circle-worship
was practised at any particular time in the past, but clearly it
had a great vogue for many centuries in Bengal, and it is by
no means extinct to-day. Sakta yoga has been practised in
all parts of the country down to our own times.
§ 237. Men and women of all castes, and outcastes as well,
are welcome to become Saktas ; yet the faith does not interfere
in the slightest with the social rules of caste. This freedom
was natural in a cult which sprang from the lower orders.
Then, when the cult became a regular Hindu sect, it would be
retained as necessary in the fight with Buddhism and Jainism,
and for the winning of the masses, since such a large proportion
of the people of North India at that time must have been
outside the castes.
Like the other sects, the Saktas advised all those who
wanted to make real progress in the faith to select a guru
and undergo initiation {dlksha).
THE SAKTA systems 205
G. Saura Literature,
§ 1^38. The Saura sect was clearly numerous and powerful
during the whole of this period. Numerous Sun-temples
existed throughout the north,^ and many kings were devotees
of Surya.2 Of his worship in the south at this period there
seems to be no evidence. His priests were called Magas,
Bhojakas, Sakadvlpiya Brahmans ; for the Magians were at
an early date accepted as full Brahmans.^ By far the most
important Saura document belonging to this period is the
Saura Saihhitd^ a work of the same nature as the Vaishnava
Samhitas but devoted to the worship of Surya. The only
known MS. is in Nepal, and unfortunately has not yet been
examined in detail. It is dated A. D. 941, but doubtless the
work itself is much earlier.* Of considerable interest also is
the Surya Sataka of Mayura, who seems to have been a rival
of Bana at the court of Harsha in the first half of the seventh
century. It is a Sanskrit poem of one hundred stanzas in
Sragdhara metre and the Gaud! style, and is rather a literary
than a religious work ; but, composed by an accomplished
poet at the most brilliant court of the time, it naturally
exhibits clearly the current theology of the god. The ideas
are only a little in advance of those that meet us in the earlier
works.^ Surya as the source of Release is the point on which
most stress is laid. It is noteworthy that in the Bhaktdmara
Stotra by the Jain poet, Manatuhga, who seems to have been
a contemporary, praise is heaped upon Surya without stint.^
The Samba P,^ a Saura document connected with Orissa which
tells the story of Samba and the Magas,"'^ probably belongs
to this period; for it is mentioned by Alberuni in A.D. 1030.
* Bhandarkar^ VS. 154; Vincent Smith, EHI, 345, 372.
^ See especially Chanda, lAR, 145, 161.
^ Chanda, lAR, 161; 224; Bhandarkar, VS, 154, The Kubjika 71,
a very early work, expresses the fear that they will receive such re-
cognition: H. P. Sastrl, I. Ixxx.
* H. P. Sastri, I. Ixxvi. See also no. 203 in Schrader's list, IP AS, 11.
* Ouackenbos, SPM, « lb. p. 266.
"' Bloch, ZDMG, Ixiv. 733 ; Vasu, Mayurabhunjuy iii.
/ _
3o6 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
Several chapters in the Agni P,^ which is a Bhagavata docu-
ment, and in the Garuda P,? which is Smarta,.deal with the
images and the worship of Surya.
H. Gdnapatya Literature,
§ 239. The early development of the god Gane^a or Gana-
pati is traced by Bhandarkar,^ but our interest in him begins
at the point when he became the god of a sect. That probably
happened early in this period, but the date remains doubtful.
The worship of the god comes before us in the Ydjnavalkya
Smriti^ in the opening lines of the Mdlati-Madkava and in
inscriptions of the eighth and ninth centuries, while the theology
appears in the Upanishad called indifferently Varadatdpantya
or Ganapatitdpanlya^ which probably belongs to this period.
Gane^a is proclaimed the eternal Brahman, and a royal mantra
in his honour is given and explained • in imitation of the
Nrisimha-tdpanlya U,^ Another Upanishad belonging to
the sect probably lies behind the Ganapati U. which forms
a part of the Atharvasiras U.^ of the Smartas. In the lists
of Vaishnava Samhitas '^ a Ganesa Samhitd is mentioned,
which probably belongs to the sect. The passages in the
Agni ^ and Gartida ^ Puranas which give directions for his
worship are to be regarded not as belonging to the Ganapat}^
sect but as rules for the cult of the god by Bhagavatas and
Smartas in Panchayatana puja.
There is thus the best of evidence that the five gods were
widely worshipped during our period, while Brahma received
but little attention.
ii. Buddhism.
§ 240. The ancient monastery of Nalanda in Bihar rose
about the beginning of the period to the position of a uni-
versity, and all the schools took part in the teaching, discus-
» Chaps. LI, LXXIII, XCIX.
» Chaps. VII, XVI, XVII, XXXIX. » VS, 147. * lb. 14^$.
* See § 218.
® Vans Kennedy, HM. 493. See § 207. "^ Schrader, /PAS. 7.
» Chaps. LXXI and CCCXIII. » Chap. XXIV.
THE SAKTA systems ao;
sions, and writing that went on there. In China there was
great translation activity throughout the period, and two of
the most noteworthy of the Chinese pilgrims, Hiouen Tsang
and I Tsing, visited India in the seventh century. Japan
received Buddhism in A.D. 552, and it was introduced into
Cambodia about the same time, and into Tibet about
A.D. 640.
A. The Hlnaydna,
§ 241. We do not hear of the production of fresh literature
by the Indian Hinayana sects during this period, and in
Ceylon no books of real religious interest seem to have been
written. Yet it is clear that a number of the schools were
still active. It is noteworthy that the whole Mulasarvastivadin
Vinaya, and a number of the books of the Vinaya of other
Hinayana schools,^ were translated into Chinese, while all the
chief works of the Abhidharma of the Sarvastivadins were
reproduced in both Chinese and Tibetan.^ The Dharma-
gupta Life of the Buddha, the Abhinishkramana-sutra^ was
translated into Chinese in A.D. 587, and into Tibetan at
a later date.^ After I Tsing returned to China he spent
twelve years in translating texts,* Amongst these there is
a solid block of thirteen works representing the Mula-
Sarvastivadin Vinaya, but nearly all the other books of
which he produced versions belong to the Mahayana school.
Chinese Buddhism was essentially Mahayana, though it used
the Hinayana Vinaya and Abhidharma' freely, and the old
sutras to some extent.
B. The Mahayana,
§ 242. In the Mahayana literature of the period Sutras do not
play a large part. Two noteworthy books may be mentioned,
the Rdshtrapdla-pariprichchhd and the Mahdkarundpundarlka,
The former is poor in language and style. It discusses the
* Nanjio, 1107, I127, 1128, I139, I142.
* lb. 1263, 1265, 1275, 1277, 1281, 1282, 1296, 1317.
5 lb. 680. * lb. Col. 441.
ao8 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
qualities of the Bodhisattvas, and prophesies the coming fall
of Buddhism. The first chapter of the latter work is a dis-
cussion between Buddha and the creator Brahma, in which the
former reasons from Buddhist premises to the conclusion that
there can be no creator.
§ 343. The ancient monastery of Nalanda in Behar gradually
developed, probably in the sixth century, into a great Buddhist
university, where thousands of students and numerous teachers
of all the schools, both of the Hinayana and the Mahayana,
taught and disputed and wrote. A picture of the buildings,
manner of study, teaching, disputation, and worship, may be
gathered from the memoirs of Hiouen Tsang apd I Tsing.
From about A.D. 600 to 850 it is possible to trace the succes-
sion of scholars, especially in the Madhyamaka and Vijnana-
vadin schools. A continuous series of manuals on each of
these philosophies was produced there, and many were trans-
lated into Chinese and Tibetan. Here we can notice only the
more noteworthy books.
a. The Mddhyamakas,
§ 244. The greatest names of the Madhyamaka school were
Chandraklrti and Santideva. Chandraklrti, who lived in the
first half of the seventh century, is famous for his Prasannapddd^
an excellent commentary on Nagarjuna's Kdrikd, and for his
Mddhyamakdvatdra^ which deals with the whole doctrine of
the Mahayana as well as the Madhyamaka system. Santideva,
who lived about the middle of the seventh century, wrote
three works, Sikshdsamuchchhaya^ SutrasamucJuhhayay and
Bodhicharydvatdra^ the first and the last of the three being
famous. The Sikshdsamtichchhaya is a summary of Mahayana
teaching according to the Madhyamaka school in twenty-seven
verses, karikas, accompanied by a bulky prose commentary
which consists largely of extracts from the literature. The
double work forms an excellent manual of the teaching.
The Bodhicharydvatdra^ i. e. * Entrance on the Wisdom-life ',
is a noble poem in praise of the ideal of the Mahayana, the
t -.
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 209
life of the Bodhisattva. It is so filled with living devotion,
tenderness and passion that M. Barth compares it to the
Imitation, The root idea is that only by self-sacrifice can
the Bodhisattva help to win the world to wisdom and reach
enlightenment himself. Therefore must the novice practise
charity and compassionate feeling, worship the Buddhas and
celestial Bodhisattvas with all the rich accompaniments of the
Mahayana cult, and prepare himself by careful thought and
steady discipline to meet all the difficulties of the long
journey and to suffer martyrdom for the sake of others. In
both these works Santideva seems to go farther than other
teachers in this regard. He says the Bodhisattva must not
shrink from taking upon himself all the sins and tortures of
the damned. The doctrine of vacuity must also be plumbed.
b. The Vijndnavddins.
§ ^45. Chandragomin was the chief scholar of the Vijilana-
vadin school. He lived early in the seventh century, and was
thus the contemporary and opponent of Chandraklrti. He
is famous as a poet, a learned writer, a logician, and a gram-
marian. Two of his works have been preserved in Sanskrit,
the Sishyalekhadharma-kdvya^ a romantic poem of the refined
classical style, and his grammar,^ and one, his logic, survives
in Tibetan.
C. The Sdkta Movement.
§ ^46. A new movement, which really amounted to a
disastrous revolution, arose in Buddhism during this period,
the Tantrik movement. It is in all things parallel with the
Tantrik movement in Hinduism ; and, like it, it was repudiated
by the best schools of the parent faith. How was such a
thing possible in Buddhism ? — Because the main conceptions
of polytheistic paganism had never been repudiated and
condemned.^ All Buddhists believed in the Hindu gods and
^ Vidyabhushana,//46'i?. 1907, no. 2.
2 Poussin, Opinions^ 343 ff.
P
aio THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
demons, the need of honouring them, the supernatural power
of sainthood, the occult potency of yoga-practices, both
physical and mental, and the power of magic spells. Although
these things were kept in the background in early Buddhism,
they were not killed, and in the Mahayana they got the
opportunity to grow and spread. The numerous Buddhas
and celestial Bodhisattvas of the Mahayana — above all Avalo-
kitesvara — conceived like Hindu divinities in heavens of glory
and pleasure, and worshipped in like manner, opened the door
wide to Hindu superstition.
§ 347. The full system appears in the Tantras. Every
Buddha and every Bodhisattva has here a wife, his sakti ; a
new esoteric cult — in all points the same as the Hindu chakra-
puja — has been formed, in which wine, women, flesh, magic
syllables, spells, postures, and diagrams are the most prominent
features; eroticism rises in the literature, justified by Gautama's
life in the harem before he became an ascetic ; hypnotic yoga-
practice, with all the Hindu theories of occult centres of power
in the body and in the letters of the alphabet, is recommended ;
the guru, who is identical with Buddha, must be obeyed with-
out question ; and a quasi-pantheistic philosophy, based on
the Madhyamaka system of vacuity but closely related to
Vedantism, declares that all men are Buddhas.
Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, says that Buddhist Tantras
were first written in the sixth century, and he may well be
right. We can^ trace these books in the first half of the
seventh century, but no evidence is yet available to carry them
farther back. The Tathdgata Guhyaka^ a perfect specimen
of the class, must belong to the first half of the seventh
century ; for it is already quoted by Santideva in the middle
of that century ^ ; and the Tantras which Subhakrishna,
Vajrabodhi, and his pupil Amoghavajra translated into
Chinese in the second decade of the eighth century,* must
belong to the latter half of the seventh at latest, for Vajra-
bodhi died in his seventy-first year in 775^, and his name and
* Wintemitz, II. i. 262. ^ Nanjio, cols, 443-^.
f —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS %\\
the name of his pupil contain the word vajra^ which was
a distinctive epithet of the new system. This word, which
originally meant thunderbolt and diamond, and which had
been commonly used in the Mahayana in these senses, is used
in Tantrism as an esoteric word for penis, the ideas of power
and preciousness connected with thunderbolt and diamond
being carried over with it.
The new system took shape within the Mahayana, and was
probably for some considerable time scarcely distinguished
from it. Even when its nature had become quite clear, and
the system as such was frankly repudiated, a good deal of its
poison remained in the Mahayana.
The aim of the movement is clearly the acquisition of
power. Erotic, gruesome, and magic rites are used, in order
to secure the help of the most mighty supernatural beings
known to the devotee, and hypnotic practices and mighty
spells, which are believed to be potent in a thousand ways
by themselves, are regularly employed.
§ 248. From the immense mass of Buddhist Tantrik works
the Chinese canon ^ enables us to sever a large number
belonging to this period, but most of them are but names
to us. Yet a few of the early Tantras are known. The
Tathagdta Guhyaka^ which must date froni about A.D. 600,2
is evidence that the system had been already formed in all its
main features by that time. It contains instructions for
esoteric worship, meditation, and yoga-practice, has much
to say about magic spells, diagrams, and postures, and in
obscenity and superstition it is not exceeded by anything
later. It may be compared with the Hindu Kubjikdmata T,^
which probably belongs to the same century. In some points
the Tathdgata Guhyaka is an extreme work ; for it recom-
mends the use of ordure in worship and in food, a feature
which comes from the Kapalikas. The Mahdvairochana-
abhisambodki, translated into Chinese in A.D. 7^x4, and pre-
served also in the Tibetan canon, is one of the most important
* Nanjio, cols. 444-8. * See § 247. ^ See § 231.
P a
f -.
11% THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
Tantras. The Buddha is here the whole universe. Vajrabodhi ,
and his disciple Amoghavajra, who introduced Tantrism into
China, seem to have given the chief Tantras of their school
the epithet Vajra^ekhara.^ These also would afford clear
evidence of the character of seventh-centuiy Tantrism in
India. I Tsing, the Chinese pilgrim, between 700 and 712,
translated the Suvarnaprabhdsottamardja, a Vijiianavadin
work, essentially a fuller and later form of the Suvarna-
prabhdsa^ but showing many Tantrik features. The Pahcha-
kramay which probably comes from the ninth century, is an
elaborate treatise on Tantrik Yoga, while the Mahdmegha-
sutral^ which belongs to the sixth century, is a manual of
magic.
The Sragdhard'Stotra^ an artistic poem in the kavya style
in honour of the Buddhist goddess Tara, by Sarvajna-mitra
of the ninth century, may serve as an example of the best
Tantrik odes.
§ 1249. Dharanis, i.e. magic spells, form a part of the
Mahayana system, but they found a still wider field in
Tantrism. The power of a dharani may be obtained by
pronouncing it once or many times, by writing, it over and
over again, or by agitating mechanically the paper on which
it is written. In Tibet they are twirled in prayer- wheels, or
fastened to trees and poles and fluttered by the wind. They
are used in worship, in meditation, in hypnotic practice, and
in magic. A few of the more potent were incised in stone
and set up in temple or monastery. Syllabic spells such as
krum^ krim, phat are so much more powerful because they
are meaningless. The famous mantra of AvalokiteiJvara,
Oih mani padme huik, * Om, the jewel in the lotus ',^ is the
best example of a phrase spell. There are also numerous
spells in the form of short or long sutras. Perhaps the most
famous of all is the Pratyahgird Dhdranl^ which is of very
^ Nanjio, cols. 444-8.
J' Nanjio, 186, 187, 188, 244, 970; Winternitz, II. i.
^ Some scholars believe that Manipadme is a proper name in the
vocative; see Thomas, /^-<4 5". 1906,464; Francke, y/^-45. 1915,397.
t —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS 213
early origin. It is found in all the canons and was incised
in stone in many places. The Mahdmdyurl is a collection of
spells against snake-bite dating from the seventh century at
latest. Such collections were common.
§ a.50. Buddhism was introduced into Tibet in 747 by
Padmasambhava, and the monastic order was established
two years later. The founder was a Tantrik scholar, but the
Buddhism of Tibet may be most fairly described as the Maha-
yana with Tantrism included. The translation of Buddhist
books into Tibetan was begun soon after the introduction of
the religion. In the middle of the ninth century the king,
Ral-pa-Chan,]employed a large number of Indian and Tibetan
scholars in the work of translation, and the bulk of the
existing canon thus came into existence.
iii. Jainism.
§ %^\, One of the most noteworthy features of Jainism at
this time is its almost complete immunity from the poison of
Saktism ; and this healthy freedom is still characteristic of the
religion. Goddesses are praised in hymns and represented in
temples, but do not receive worship, and there is no foul
ritual. The Sakta Yoga,^ with its nddls and chakras in the
human frame, is accepted, but it is not very prominent.
A. Svetdmbara Literature,
§ 25a. Gujarat, and especially Valabhi, remained the chief
centre of Svetarhbara activity throughout this period. The
sect was now in possession of a formed canon of sacred books.
It had been written and published, and copies had been placed
in all the chief monasteries. The best Svetambara scholars
thus naturally set to work to make these precious documents
intelligible to all who cared to read them. The sect also took
a very worthy place in the production of popular literature in
Prakrit. A few scholars distinguished themselves in logic.
' For some account of Jain Yoga, see Bhandarkar, R, 1883-4, no;
Garbe, SY, 39; Gu^rinot, 469.
/ _
214 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
Amongst the numerous literary men who were attracted to
the court of the Emperor Harsha at Kanouj in the first half
of the seventh century we find Manatuhga, a Svetambara
poet, who is remembered on account of his stotras^ the
Bhaktdmarastotra and the Bhayaharastotra. These stotras
are rather sacred odes to be recited by an individual than
hymns for congregational singing. Bappabhatti, who lived
in the latter half of the eighth century and won for Jainism
King Ama of Kanouj, the son and successor of Ya^ovarman,
is the author of another famous ode, the Sarasvatlstotra,
Mallavadin (early ninth century) wrote on logic,
Haribhadra, one of the very greatest of all Jain authors,
lived in the latter half of the ninth century. He was born
and brought up a Brahman, and when he became a Jain was
able to use his Brahman culture to help the religion he had
chosen. He is famous as a writer on Jain doctrine and
conduct, as one of the most brilliant of commentators, and
as a competent writer on logic.^ He also did something for
popular Prakrit literature. Yet he is best known to-day for
his Shaddarsanasamuchchhayay a treatise dealing with six
philosophical systems, the Buddhist, Nyaya, Sahkhya, Jain,
Vai^eshika, and Karma Mimamsa. In case some reader
should remark that the Nyaya and the Vaii^eshika are practi-
cally one, he adds a brief account of the atheistic and
materialistic Lokayata to make the number up tq six.
Amongst other works he composed several manuals of Jain
teaching.^
Another famous Svetambara scholar named Silanka was
a contemporary of Haribhadra. These two, wishing to brii^
the study of the Jain sacred texts into the open scholarly life
of India, wrote fresh commentaries on them in Sanskrit, and
also translated large parts of the old expository literature into
Sanskrit. Haribhadra was a little more conservative than
Silanka ; for here and there in translating he left stories and
other well-known sections in the old Prakrit. Of Silanka's
* Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 48 ff. * Gudrinot, 71; Peterson, III. 34-5.
/ —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS . 1*15
great body of work a good deal has been lost, but his com-
mentaries on the Achdrdhga and Sutrakritdhga sutras, and
a portion of his work on the Avaiyaka survive. The com-
mentary on the Achdrdnga was finished in A. D. 863. Of
Haribhadra's work there remain expositions of the Prajnd-
pandy Jambudvlpaprajnapti^ Dasavaikdlika^ and Avasyaka, It
is noticeable that these brilliant commentators lived just a
little later than Sankara and Vachaspatimi^ra.
§ 1^'^. As we have already seen, the Jains took a worthy
part in the production of popular literature in Prakrit. Most
of it is lost beyond recall, but a few masterpieces belonging
to this period survive and enable us to form some idea of its
range and its value. A Jain anthology, consisting of 704 epi-
grammatic stanzas, well worthy to stand beside Hala's famous
Sattasaty has been preserved. It is named the Vajjdlaggdy
and it was arranged by Jayavallabha. Its date is probably
the eighth or ninth century. Haribhadra also wrote a book
in Prakrit, the Samaraichchhakahdy which consists of nine
romances. As he says himself in the introduction, he wrote
the book for the purpose of giving instruction in Jainism, and
chose the romantic method in order to attract readers. The
book proved very popular, and was later put into Sanskrit.
A pupil of Haribhadra's, Siddharshi by name, is the author
of an allegorical work in Prakrit, written in A.D. 906, the
Upamitibhavaprapanchdkathd. It is a view of human life
in which the virtues and the vices figure as persons. Jacobi
speaks of it as *a work of rare originality' and says it is
worthy of comparison with the Pilgrim's Progress, The work
was later abbreviated by two Jain authors.^
B. Digambara Literature.
§ 354. The chief centre of Digambara activity throughout
this period was a section of South India, corresponding to the
Mysore and the southern part of the Maratha country. The
sect enjoyed the favour of the Chalukya kings, who ruled at
^ Gu^rinot, pp. 79, 148, 155.
ai6 THE SAKTA SYSTEMS
BadamI (Vatapl) from the middle of the sixth to the middle
of the eighth century, and received much support and recogni-
tion from their successors, the Rashtrakutas, whose capital at
first was Nasik but afterwards Manyakheta farther south.^
They had also considerable influence in the Tamil country.
The literature of the period is extremely rich and varied.
Perhaps its most strikingly notable aspects are Jain dogmatics
and ethics, legendary literature in the form of Puranas, and
logic. It is to the Digambara Jains that we owe the rise and
early growth of Kanarese literature : they used it for popular
literature.
§ 255. Samantabhadra, who came between Umasvati and
Kumarila, and thus probably flourished about A. D. 6co, wrote
the Gaitdhahastimahdbhdshya^ the chief Digambara com-
mentary on Umasvati's Tattvdrthddkigama-sutra. The intro-
duction, called Devdgamastotra or Aptamlmdmsd^ a Sanskrit
poem of 115 stanzas, is regarded as the best exposition of the
Jain method of dialectic, known as Syadvada, i.e. the * may-be '
doctrine, and of the Jain conception of a Tirthakara as an
omniscient being. Its influence on Jain logic was very great.
It contains a review of contemporary schools of philosophy,
including the advaita Vedanta. He is also the author of two
famous hymns of praise, and of two books on Jain conduct,
one of which, the Ratnakaranda'Srdvdkdchdra^ is much used.^
Akalahka, a junior contemporary of Kumarila and a senior
contemporary of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, probably
lived about A.D. 770. His most famous works were a sacred
ode, the Akalanka-stotray and a commentary on the Aptamu
mdmsd named Ashtaiatl.
In addition to Samantabhadra's famous work, five com-
mentaries on Umasvati ought to be mentioned, the first called
Sarvdrihasiddhi by Pujyapada, c. A.D. 700, the second,
Tattvdrthatikdvydkhydlamkdra^ which is believed to be by
Akalahka, the third an anonymous work named Rdjavdrtika
also written in the eighth century, the fourth Slokavdrtika by
» Smith, EHL 427 ff. * The other is Yukt&nusdsana.
t —
THE SAKTA SYSTEMS %\1
Vidyananda c. 800, and the fifth a Kanarese work, which
seems to have perished, the Chuddmani by Srivarddhadeva,
whose date is unknown.
To the ninth century belongs an anonymous work on Jain
philosophy called Jayadhavcdd^ which finds a place in the
Digambara Secondary Canon,^ A brief catechism in Sanskrit,
Prasnottaramdld^ dealing with Jain topics, is said to have
been written by Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakuta king who
reigned from A. D. 815 to 877 and was a munificent patron
of the Digambara Jains.
Three famous logicians, Vidyananda, Manikyanandin, and
Prabhachandra, were contemporaries, and may be dated about
A. D. 800.
§ 256. We now turn to popular poetry. Ravikirti, who
lived in the first half of the seventh century and wrote
in Kanarese, is the author of the Jinakathe. He built a
temple and inscribed on it a eulogy of Pulike^in H, which is
our chief source of information about him. He was followed
by a number of poets who produced Digambara Jain Puranas
in Sanskrit. The earliest of these was Ravishena, who is the
author of the Padma Purdna and probably lived in the
second half of the seventh century. The Harivamsa P. was
written by Jinasena in A. D. 783. During the reign of Amo-
ghavarsha I (A. D. 815-77), who has been already mentioned,
there lived • Jinasena,^ pupil of Virasena, and his disciple
Gunabhadra, the chief authors of the Digambara Puranas.
Jinasena wrote the first forty-three chapters of the Adi P. or
Trishashtilakshanamahdpurdnasahgraha^ and is also the author
of the Pdrsvdbhyudaya^ an imitation of Kalidasa's Meghaduta.
* See § 257.
J The current identification of the authors of the Harivamsa P, and the
Adi P, rests on the similarity of name only, and is clearly untenable. Not
only is there no mention of the Harivamsa in the Pra^asti of the Uttara /*.,
where it could not have been passed over, if it had been Jinasena's work,
but the ascription of both works to the same author is chronologically almost
impossible : the Harivamsa wks composed in 783 ; Jinasena, pupil of
Virasena, was alive in 837, the date of the Jayadhavaldtika (JBBRAS,
1894, 226), and his pupil Gunabhadra completed the Uttara P, not long
before 898. I owe this note to Prof. Keith.
ai8 THE SAKTA systems
Gunabhadra completed the Purana left unfinished by his
master, and wrote the Uttara P. He is also the author of
the Atmdnuidsana,
A detailed analysis of the Harivamia P. by R. L. Mitra
gives a very clear idea of the contents of Jain Puranas. It is
an imitation of the Hindu Harivamia. It contains numerous
legends of the Jain Tirthakaras, mythical histories of the
ancient dynasties which we meet in the Mahdbkdrata and
Puranas, and amongst them the whole story of Krishna ; but
the heroes are represented as Jains and every event speaks
in favour of Jainism. Laws of conduct, religious rites, and
other ceremonies also bulk large.
The chief monument of Jain literary activity during this
period in Tamil is the Ndladiydr, an anthology of four
hundred quatrains on moral and religious subjects, compiled
probably in the eighth century.
§ 257. The Digambaras, as we have seen, acknowledge
that they once possessed a Canon, which has been long lost.
In place of it they now recognize a sort of Secondary Canon.
It might probably be better described as the framework of
a Canon ; for, while there are four classes of works recognized,
there seems to be no fixed list of books for each, although
^ there are a few works which always find a place in the frame-
work. It seems probable that this Secondary Canon dates
from the end of this period, for it bears the mark-of the time,
as will be readily recognized. We fit into the framework the
books which were already in existence before the end of the
period. All these are now recognized as belonging to the
Canon.
THE SAKTA systems 219
DIGAMBARA SECONDARY CANON.
1 . FrathamSnuyoga (legend and history) : Padma, Hari-
vamsa, Trishashtilakshanamaha and Uttara Puranas.
2. Earananuyoga (the universe): Suryaprajnaptiy Chan-
draprajnapiiy ?i\\di Jayadhavald,
3. Dravyanuyoga (philosophy) : Pravackanasdra, Santa-
yasdra, Niyamasdra^ Panchaiikiyasamgakasutta^ all by Kunda-
kundachaiya ; Umasvati's Tattvdrthddhigama'Sutra with the
following commentaries, a. Samantabhadra, Gandhahastima-
habhdshya\ b. Pujyapada, Sarvdrthasiddhi \ c. Akalanka,
Tattvdrthatlkdvydkhydlamkdra ; d. Rdjavdrtika ; e. Vidya-
nanda, Slokavdrtika \ f. Srivarddhadeva, Chuddmani\ and the
Aptamimdmsd of Samantabhadra, with the works on dialectic
and logic dependent thereon, a. Akalahka's Ashtasatt\ b.
Vidyananda's Asktasdkasrty and c. Aptaparlkshd ; d. Mani-
kyanandin's Parlkshdmukha^ and e. Prabhachandra's Prameya-
kamala-mdrtanda,
4. Charananuyoga (practice) : Vattakera*s Mfddchdra
and Trivarndchdra and Samantabhadra's Ratnakaranda-
• • •
srdvakdckdra.
CHAPTER VI
BHAKTI
A. D. 900 TO 1350.)
§ 258. The sects which ruled the development of Hinduism
during these centuries received their inspiration in large
measure from the enthusiastic bhakti of the wandering singers
of the Tamil country described in our previous chapter.
Much of the peculiar fervour and attractive power of the
Bhdgavata Purdna comes from the devotion of the Alvars,
and the introduction of their lyrics into the Sri-Vaishnava
temples produced great changes and prepared the way for
Ramanuja. So the hymns of the Saiva singers inspired
Manikka Vackakar, while their introduction into the temples
gave the community a splendid uplift and made possible the
creation of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta. Ramanuja's influence,
in turn, told powerfully on all the sects. The two greatest
books of the period are his ^rl-bhdshya and the Bhdgavata P.
From them come two streams of bhakti characteristic of the
period, the one quiet and meditative, the other explosive and
emotional. The latter type of devotion can be felt in the
atmosphere everywhere from the thirteenth century onward.
The Muhammadan conquest of North India (ii93-iao3)
was an immeasurable disaster to Hinduism as well as to the
Hindu people, and it gave Buddhism its death-wound.
i. Hinduism.
A. The Philosophies.
a. The Karma Mzmdmsd.
§ ^59. The history of the Mimamsa school during these
centuries seems to be a blank until quite the end of the period.
Then, probably about A. D. 1300, flourished Parthasarathi
BHAKTI 221
Misra,^ who wrote, among a number of other works on the
Karma Mimamsa, the Sdstra-dtpikdy which, on account of
its popular modern style, soon found readers, and has, since
then, been more studied than the ancient manuals. He faith-
fully follows Kumarila.
But, if we know little about the school itself during the
period, we hear a good deal about the system outside. It
is very prominent in the Prabodkachandrodaya^ a drama
which was produced about A. D. 1065 and is described below.^
In the case of most of the theistic sects which rose to the *
dignity of a presentation of the Vedanta in accord with their
own convictions, we find that they held the Karma Mimamsa
as .well as the Vedanta, and taught that karma, action, as
well as jndna^ knowledge, was necessary for the winning of
release.* This is true of the Bhagavatas, Sri-Vaishnavas,
Madhvas, and Vishnusvamis, and possibly of others.
b. The Vedanta.
§ 260. Quite at the beginning of our period there appears
a noteworthy bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras by a scholar
named Bhaskaracharya, and therefore often called the Bhds-
kara-bhdshya^ Its interest lies in this that its standpoint is,
not advaita, but bhedabheda ; yet it is not one of the modern
sectarian commentaries but definitely of the same type as the
lost Vedanta work of Asmarathya mentioned in the Sutras^
Bhaskara does not name Sankara, yet he attacks him all
through the commentary, and Bhaskara, in turn, is assailed by
Udayana in the Kusumdnjali, As Udayana's date is about
A.D. 980, Bhaskara must have written between 850 and 980, and
^ His date is unknown, but as the earliest known reference to the work
is in Madhava*s Nydyamdldvistara (§ 338), the above conjecture is not
likely to be far from the truth. See Ramamisra Sastrl, Mimdmsd'sloka"
7'drtika, Intro., Benares, 1898.
2 Taylor's Tr,, pp. 13, 14, 15, 49, 61, 7% f.
^ § 270. * See § 285.
* Thus Thibaut is mistaken in thinking that Ramanuja's Sribhdshya is
the earliest surviving bhashya after Sankara.
« See SBE, XXXIV. xix.
333 BHAKTI
thus probably at some point near the beginning of the period.^
He attacks the Paiicharatra Vaishnavas also. Yadava Praka^
of Conjeeveram wrote a fresh advaita bhashya about A.D. 1050,
but, at a later date, was won over to Vaishnavism by his own
pupil Ramanuja. It is not known whether the Yadava-
bhashya survives or not. But the main history of the school
of the Vedanta during these centuries seems to consist in the
continuous study of Sankara's Bhashya with the help of
Vachaspati's Bhdmati, This belief is confirmed by the most
outstanding advaita work of the period, the Vedanta-kalpataru^
which was written by Amalananda just before A.D. ia6o:
it is an ample exposition of the Bhdmatl.
Two popular advaita works might quite naturally find
mention here, the Prabodhachandrodaya and the Yoga-
Vasishtha-Rdmdyana ; yet as their connexions are more with
householders than sannyasis, they are dealt with elsewhere.*
§ 361. But the most startling feature of the progress of the
Vedanta during the period is the rise of the sectarian bhashyas.
The movement seems to have been created by a single man,
Ramanuja ; for the great success of his Srl-bhdshya stirred so
much emulation that every sect was impelled to endeavour to
produce a bhashya that would justify itis theology. As each
of these theistic bhashyas will be discussed in connexion with
the sect which created it, there is no need to deal with them at
length here. The dates of a few of them are still uncertain,
yet we may with safety conclude that the following appeared
during the period : Ramanuja*s ^rt-bhdshya^ Madhva's Sutra-
bhdshya^ Vishnusvamfs Brahma-sutra-bhdshya^ and Srinivasa's
Vedd^ita-Katisttibha?
The Kustimdhjali of Udayana, which is discussed under the
Nyaya philosophy,* may be mentioned here as further evidence
of the great vogue of theism at this stage of Hindu history.
Here also we may mention an extraordinary work, which,
^ See the Bhumika to Vindhye^varl Prasad's edition of the Bhdskya.
^ See I 270. * See the table below, § 34a
^ See § 265.
BHAKTI 223
though It shows a sceptical and destructive spirit, yet maintains
the chief positions of the advaita Vedanta, the Kkandana-
khandakhddya^ i. e. The Sweets of Refutation} by Sriharsha,
the date of which is the latter half of the twelfth century.
The chief Upanishad commentator during the period was
Sankarananda, the guru of Madhava, the advaita Vedantist.
He must have flourished in the first half of the fourteenth
century. Madhva, the founder of the Madhva sect, left dvaita
commentaries on ten of the chief Upanishads.
c. The Sdnkhya,
§ J262. During these centuries no noticeable manual of the
Sankhya philosophy appeared, and the system seems to have
undergone very little modification. It is described by Alberuni,
the Muhammadan scholar, in his work on India dating from
A.D. 1030.
d. The Yoga,
§ i6j,. The Yoga system remained almost stationary also.
The only outstanding work belonging to the period is the
Rdjamdrtanda, a commentary on the Yoga-sutra^ ascribed to
Bhoja, King of Dhara (1018-60). It is clear and easy but of
no great value. Alberuni deals with the Yoga as well as the
Sankhya, and Garbe is inclined to believe that he used the
Rdjamdrtanda. If that be so, it must have been written during
the earliest years of the king's reign.
The new Yoga of Gorakshanatha, which is described below,^
found no entrance into the school of PataiijaH.
e. The Vaiseshika.
§ 264. In the tenth century two very noteworthy thinkers
wrote on the Vai^eshika system. Udayana, a writer of great
clearness and force, left two works on the system. The first
is the Kirandvalty or * Necklace of Rays ', which is a com-
mentary on Prasastapada's Bhdshya. The other work, written
* See also § 265. * § 302.
324 BHAKTI
in A.D. 984, is called the Lakshandvall, or ' Necklace of Defini-
tions ' of Vai^eshika terms. Sridhara, the second writer, who
belonged to the south-west of Bengal, is the author of a com-
mentary on PraiJastapada called the Nydya^Kandall^ which
has been used as an authoritative manual ever since it was
written in A.D. 991.
f. The Nydya,
§ 16^, Udayana wrote also on the Nyaya system. His
work, which is ah exposition of Vachaspati's Ttkd^ is called
the Nydya-vdrtika'tdtparya-parisuddhi. But Udayana is most
famous for his Kusumdhjaliy i.e. * Handfuls of Flowers', a
metrical treatise in seventy-two memorial couplets with a para-
phrase in prose, the purpose of which is to prove the existence
of God. The fact that the work is frequently called the Nydya
Kusumdhjali^ coupled with the settled theistic teaching of the
school, makes it natural we should refer to it here. Cowell, in
his text and translation,^ bespeaks a hearing for the work
because,
though obscure and technical, it professes to grapple, from a Hindu
standing-point, with the world-old problem, how the existence of the
Supreme Being is to be proved ; and perhaps those who are interested
in the history of philosophy may turn over some of the pages with
curiosity, especially when they occasionally recognize old familiar
arguments and objections in their quaint Oriental disguise.
From the eleventh century onwards the Nyaya and Vaiie-
shika form practically one combined school. The syncretism
commences with Sivaditya's Sapta-paddrtha-nirupana^ which
probably belongs to the eleventh century. It is continued in
a twelfth-century work which has been widely used, the Nydya
Chintdmani of Gahgesa, in the Tarka-bhdshd of Ke^ava of the
thirteenth century, and in Sahkara Misra's Vaiseshika'Sutro-
paskdra^ written in tlie fifteenth century. This syncretistic
school has been ably described by Suali.^
' I\ V. 2 3ee Keith on Suali,//?^5. 1914, 1089.
^ Introduzione alio Studio della Filosojia Indiana*
BHAKTI !Z:45
From the point of view of logic and dialectic, great interest
attaches to that section of the Khandanakhandakhddya ^ which
• • • • •
criticizes logic :
The object of Harsha is to prove that the logicians with their as-
sumption of the reality of existence were guilty of a complete blunder,
and his mode of doing so is the simple one of taking each of the defini-
tions set up by the Nyaya school and proving it to be untenable.'
§ 266, During the tenth and eleventh centuries logic was
cultivat«ed by Buddhists at VikramaiSila, but the last name
mentioned by Vidyabhushana is Sankarananda,® whose date is
about A.D. 1050. Among the Jains logic was continuously
studied, and logical works were produced throughout the
period. Devasuri * of the twelfth century was the greatest of
their writers on logic, but there were many others.
§ 267. Madhava*s Sarvadarsanasangraha may be recom-
mended to the student as a most helpful outline of the chief
systems current in India towards the end of the period, though
its date falls within the limit of the next period.*
B. The Purdnas,
§ 268. The emergence of the Bhdgavata P. is a fact of
signal importance, but it is discussed at another point.® If
there was already a Canon of eighteen Puranas in the ninth
century, the rise of the Bhdgavata to a position of such
authority as to require recognition in the Canon would create
a difficulty. The confusion which the lists show to-day may
be the direct result of that circumstance."^
In the present state of Puranic study, it is very hard to date
individual documents occurring in Puranas, but the evidence
* See § 261. ? Keith, //?^5. 1916, 377.
3 MSIL. 142. * lb. 38. * See § 345. « See § 272.
■^ If the old Canon stood as follows : — Brahma, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu,
Siva, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavishya, Brahmavaivarta, Linga,
Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda, Brahmanda, the
substitution of the Bhdgavata for the Sivay followed by various attempts
to find a place for the expelled Purana, would account for all the
phenomena.
236 BHAKTI
available suggests that the following may belong to the
period :
Vaishnava : Narasimha Upapurdna ; part of the Patala
Khanda of the Padma P., which praises the Bhagavata ;
the Uttara Khanda, which is Sri- Vaishnava.
l§aiva : VayavTya S. of the Siva P.
Sakta : Devi Bhdgavata Upapurdna. ,
Saura : Brahma P. xxi-xxviii.
Ganapatya : Ganesa Upapurdna.
C. Smdrta Literature,
§ 369. The most noticeable piece of Vedic literature pro-
duced during this period is Bhatta Bhaskara Mi^ra's^ com-
mentaries on the Taittiriya Samhitd^ Aranyaka^ and Upanishad
of the Black Yajus, He lived in the Telugu country, belonged
to the Atreya Sakha of the Taittiriya school, and wrote his
commentary on the Sarhhita in A.D. 1188.^
Hemadri, a learned Brahman, held the office of chief minister
at the Yadava court in the Maratha country under two kings
towards the end of the thirteenth century, and was clearly
a man of much influence. He wrote an encyclopaedia of
orthodox 'Hindu observances, the Chaturvargachintdmaniy a
work of large importance to Smartas,
§ 270. Several pieces of popular literature written from the
standpoint of the advaita Vedanta during the period were
probably meant for Smarta householders rather than for
sannyasis, and ought therefore to be mentioned here.
At the court of Kirtivarman, the Chandel king of Jejaka-
bhukti, about the year 1065 and possibly in the city of
^ To be carefully distinguished from Bhaskaracharya who wrote the
Bhaskara Bhashya^ above, § 260.
' The ^loka in the Bhashya on the Samhitd in the Mysore Text reads
Nishpdvake sake, 14 10 in the ^aka era, i.e. 1488-9. But thte commentary
is unquestionably earlier than Sayana. We must therefore suppose that
the ^loka ought to be read nishpdpdke sake, mo ^aka, Le. A.D. 1 188-9.
The confusion ol p and ?/ in a South Indian MS. is a very likely error.
I owe this note to Prof. Keith. Cf. also !§eshagiri Rao, SSTM. 1893-4, p. 3.
BHAKTI ^%^
Khajuraho, there was produced a Sanskrit drama called Pra-
* bodhachandrodaya^ i.e. The Moonrise of Wisdom} The author
was a sannyasi named Krishnami^ra. The play is an allegory
of the deliverance of the human spirit from the temptations
and delusions of the world. Vishnu-bhakti stirs up Discrimina-
tion, and, using the Upanishads, Faith, Good Sense, and their
numerous allies, inflicts a signal defeat on Delusion, Love,
Greed, and their many attendants. The rise {udaya) of Wisdom
{prabodha) naturally follows, and the human spirit realizes its
own absolute identity with God, renounces Action, and adopts
dispassionate Asceticism as the only right rule of life. The
number of abstract conceptions which take part as persons in
the play make it rather hard to follow, but it contains abun-
dance of life and movement also. Apart from the fact that
Vishnu-bhakti plays a leading part, there is no aggressive
Vaishnavism in the play. The supreme Brahman is definitely
called Vishnu, and several times his incarnations are referred
to, especially Krishna, but it goes no further. There are no
references to Vaishnava literature, and Lakshml is mentioned
only once. The philosophy is pure Advaitism. The scenes
in which followers of Buddhism, Jainism, Materialism, the
Karma Mimamsa, the Sahkhya, Yoga, and Nyaya philosophies
and the Kapalika form of Saivism are represented in discussion
with one another are amongst the most vivid and interesting
in the play. In the great battle the Buddhists, the Jains, and
the materialist Lokayatas, or Charvakas, range themselves
with Kama and the Vices under their general, Moha, while
Vaishnavas, Saivas, and Sauras gather round the goddess
Sarasvati, and are aided by all the six orthodox philosophies
and by Grammar and the Virtues to inflict a signal defeat on
the atheist host. When the question is raised how these ever-
hostile Hindu disputants brought themselves to any common
action, a sufficient reason is found in hostility to the common
foe, and we are told that wise men perceive that the orthodox
sects and philosophies are only seemingly opposed to each
other, that in truth they all celebrate the one Reality. So far
Q2
228 BHAKTI
as the writer knows, this is the first time the idea of the inner
harmony of the Hindu systems finds expression in Hindu
literature.
The Yoga- Vasishtha-Rdmayana is one of many Sanskrit
poems written in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to
popularize a philosophy or the theology of a sect. It is
scarcely parallel with the Adhydima Rdmdyand\ for the story
of Rama here serves merely as a dramatic setting for the
exposition of the Vedanta. It is a very long and diflfuse poem,
running to some 32,000 stanzas. The system taught is the
advnita Vedanta, but there already appears in it that admixture
of Sankhya ideas which is still more prominent in Madhava
and Vijnana Bhikshu. The value of yoga is also emphasized.
It may date from about A.D. 1300, or earlier.
The Right-hand movement among Saktas, which is described
below,^ can be traced from the period, and is probably older.
As all its connexions are with Vedic Hinduism^ it ought to
be mentioned here as affecting the religious practice of many
Smartas.
D. Vaishnava Literature,
a. General.
§ 271. The only type of general Vaishnava literature
belonging to this period consists of translations or adaptations
of the Epics. It is important to realize that vernacular
versions of ancient religious books are usually literary rather
than religious in their influence. The Mahdbhdrata appeared
in Tamil in the tenth century and in Telugu in the eleventh,
while the Rdmdyana was rendered in Telugu about 1 100 and
in Tamil in the twelfth century. Jain adaptations of the two
Epics were written in Kanarese verse, the Mahdbhdrata in the
tenth, the Rdmdyana in the eleventh. But all the greatest
Vaishnava literature was produced by the Sects.
' §317.
BHAKTI 20.9
b. Bhdgavata Literature,
I. The Bhdgavata Pur ana.
§ 272. About the beginning of this period the Bhdgavata P,
seems to have been born from the Bhagavata community ;
and during the following centuries a number of new sects
sprang from the influence of the Purana. Under this heading
we therefore comprehend all the work produced both by the
parent body and the dependent sects. Of the two dominating
events of this period the earlier is the appearance and the
influence of this great Purana. No theory of its date and
origin yet advanced has been accepted by scholars as satis-
factory. Can sufficient fresh evidence now be produced to
bring the problem nearer solution ?
§ 273. The work has several characteristic features. While
the Harivamsa and the Vishnu P. each gives some account of
Krishna's youth spent among the gopas and gopis of Vrinda-
vana and its neighbourhood, they deal with the whole life of
Krishna. The Bhdgavata scarcely refers to his later life, but
spends all its strength over his boyhood and youth. Secondly,
the gopIs play a very large part in the work. Radha does
not appear : she is a later creation. Yet there is a favourite
among the gopis who wanders alone with Krishna ; and the
other gopis remark that she must surely have worshipped
Krishna in a former life with more devotion than the rest, and
in that way must have won her favoured position.
The Bhdgavata is really a great work. What distinguishes
it from all earlier literature is its new theory of bhakti\ and
therein lies its true greatness. Some of its utterances on this
subject are worthy of a place in the best literature of mysticism
and devotion. A careful study of those passages will convince
the student that they are expressions of a living religious
experience.^ We may with absolute certainty conclude that
the work arose in some centre where there was a group of
^ This element may be most conveniently studied in the Bhaktirat-
navalt^ a collection of bhakti passages from the Bhagavata made by
a Madhva ascetic named Vishnu Purl.
230 BHAKTI
Vaishnava ascetics who lived a life of fervent devotion, and
that the writer's religious experience was rooted there. In
this rich religious element lies the chief source of the power
of the Bhdgavata, Hence the hold it has had on some of the
best Vaishnava communities and on many of the noble minds
of India.
Bhakti in this work is a surging emotion which chokes the
speech, makes the tears flow and the hair thrill with pleasure-
able excitement, and often leads to hysterical laughing and
weeping by turns, to sudden fainting fits and to long trances
of unconsciousness. We are told that it is produced by gazing
at the images of Krishna, singing his praises, remembering him
in meditation, keeping company with his devotees, touching
their bodies, serving them lovingly, hearing them tell the
mighty deeds of Krishna, and talking with them about his
glory and his love. All this rouses the passionate bhakti
which will lead to self-consecration to Krishna and life-long
devotion to his service. Such devotion leads speedSy to
release. Thus the whole theory and practice of bhakti in
this purana is very different from the bhakti of the Bkagavad-
gitd and of Ramanuja.
But we must also recognize in the Bhdgavata the presence
of another fresh element of a very different character, a long
series of highly erotic passages which go far beyond anything
the Vishnu P. and the Harivamsa contain, and which seem to
consort ill with the high devotion to the Lord and the service
of his saints which we have been considering. In these
passages Krishna's dalliance with the gopis is described In
sensuous and glowing poetry which captivates the Hindu
heart. The tenth book, which contains them, has been trans-
lated into all the chief languages of India. Yet the author
expects these highly wrought narratives of the passions of the
gopis to stimulate bhakti. The utter self-al>andonment of
their love for Krishna has come to be regarded as a symbol
of spiritual devotion. Meditation on these scenes is expected
to produce that passionate bhaljti which is regarded as the
BHAKTI 231
highest religious experience. This, the leading religious idea
of the Bhdgavata^ lies at the foundation of the whole series of
sects which sprang from it
Another noticeable feature of the Purana is this, that its
philosophic ^teaching stands nearer to Sankara's system than
to the theistic Sankhya which dominates earlier Puranic works.
§ 274. All scholars agree that it is the latest of the eighteen
Puranas. Old material has been incorporated into it, but as
a work it is the latest of all. In the fourth chapter of the
first book of the Purana itself there is a passage which implies
that it was composed last of all the eighteen ; and there is
a late section in the Padma P. which states that Vyasa pro-
mulgated the Bhagavata last of all as the extracted essence of
all the rest.
Hindu estimates of the age of the work vary to an extra-
ordinary extent, some assigning it to the earliest times, others
attributing it to Vopadeva, a well-known scholar of the second
half of the thirteenth century. Even in the time of Sridhara
SvamI, the author of the most famous commentary on it, who
probably lived about a.d. 1400, there were Hindus who said it
had been written by Vopadeva, a fact which seems to imply
that scholarly Hindus of those days suspected that it was
a late production. All European scholars have spoken of it
as a late work, but, while Colebrooke, Burnouf, and Wilson
accept the suggestion that it is the work of Vopadeva, students
to-day are inclined to give it a higher date. And the truth is
that it is quite impossible to believe that Vopadeva was the
author; for Madhva, who regarded it as fully inspired and
used it in the creation of his sect, lived at least fifty years
earlier than Vopadeva. Vopadeva*s name became assowated
with the Purana because he wrote several books on it. But
the belief in its inspiration implies its existence for some con-
siderable time before the days of Madhva's activity; and,
fortunately, we possess another piece of evidence which proves
clearly that it was already recognized as an authoritative
work some two centuries before Madhva wrote. Alberuni, in
v
23» BHAKTI
his work on India, which was completed in a.d. 1030, gives
us the list of Puranas as it was in the Viskftu P. in his day,
and It is precisely the same as the list in our MSS. of to-day.
Thus it is absolutely clear that by 1030 the Bhagavata had
not only been written but had already gained such acceptance
as to have won its present recognized place as the fifth of the
Puranas. We must, then, acknowledge that it can scarcely
have been written later than, say, A. D. 900.
§275. Can we 'discern where it was written? There is
a passage in the eleventh book ^ which suggests that it may
have been in the Tamil country. The passage runs thus in
English :
Men bom in the Krita, Treta, Dvapara ages wished to take birth in
the Kali age, because they knew that in this age would be bom great souls
devoted to Narayana. These souls would be thinly scattered in various
places ; but in the Dravida land they would be found in some numbers,
living by the side of such rivers as the TamraparnI, Kritamala,
PayasvinI, Kaverl the holy.
Then in the Bhagavata Mdhdtmya^ a late appendix to the
Bhagavata^ there is an episode ^ which bears on the question,
but which cannot be understood unless we distinguish care-
fully between ordinary bhakti and the bhakti of the Bhaga-
vata P. In this episode bhakti, incarnate as a young woman,
says, * I was bom in Dravida '. Now to say that the bhakti
of the Svetdsvatard Upanishad^ the Gttdy and the early Puranas
was born in Dravida would be absurd ; but if we realize that,
in this appendix to the Bhagavata^ bhakti necessarily means
the passionate and many-sided devotion of the great Parana,
there is no difficulty, and it becomes cleat- that the work
asserts that this bhakti arose in Tamil-land. Now, it was in
the Tamil country, by the side of the rivers just mentioned,
that those Vaishnava poet-singers who are known as A]vars
composed their hymns and went from shrine to shrine, singing
and dancing in fervent devotion before images of Vishnu and
^ XI. V. 38-40. It is quoted in another connexion by Govindacharya,
JRAS. 191 1, 949.
* I. 27. Grierson,//?^6'. 191 1, 800.
BHAKTI 233
his Avataras. Their period is the seventh, eighth, and ninth
centuries. No other group of early Vaishnavas exhibit so much
excitement in their bhakti. Further, many of the temples
they frequented were dedicated to both Vishnu and Siva.^
We may thus be certain that the ministrants of those temples
were Bhagavatas, and that a considerable section of the people
belonged to that community. Now, if in the Tamil-country
there was a group of Bhagavata ascetics who felt the same
devotion as the Alvars and expressed it in similar fashion, we
should have precisely the * great souls devoted to Narayana '
mentioned in the Bhagavata, and in such circumstances the
bhakti referred to in the Bhagavata Mdhatmy a would be
born.
§ 276. It thus seems natural to conjecture that the Bhaga-
vata was written about A. D. 900, in the Tamil country, in
some community of ascetics belonging to the Bhagavata sect
who felt and gave expression to the bhakti characteristic of
the work. If it arose in such a centre, the advaita philosophy
would inevitably be one of its characteristics, and it would
naturally receive the name Bhagavata,
%. The Bhagavatas,
§ 277. We now turn to the sects. If the Purana arose in
the way we suggest, one would expect that it would gradually
find acceptance among Bhagavatas all over the country ; and
that clearly happened. Whether in the Tamilj^Telugu, Kana-
rese, or Maratha districts, the Bhagavata P. is the chief
scripture of the Bhagavatas.
The Ndrada-bhakti'Sutra and the Sdndilya-bhakti-sutra
are brief compendiums of the bhakti system, probably meant
to be committed to memory by ascetics. Both are clearly
dependent on the Bhagavata P., and neither mentions Radha.
The Ndrada is simple both in language and thought, and is
practical in aim ; the Sdndilya is sutra-like and philosophic,
its standpoint being bheddbheda. The Bhagavatas of the south
* Krishna Sastri, SII, 72.
%34 BHAKTI
use only the Ndrada. It is probable that it was produced
among the Bhagavatas at quite an early date. The con-
nexions of the handily a-sutra^ which has been much used
in the north, are still obscure. It may be a Nimbarkite
document.
It seems clear that the Vdsudeva and Gopichandana Upani-
shads* are Bhagavata books; for the Orddhvapundra made
with a single line of creamy gopichandana^ which these
Upanishads praise, is the Bhagavata sect-mark. As Nara-
yana wrote commentaries on them, they belong to this
period.
Towards the end of the thirteenth century, Vopadeva, a
famous grammarian belonging to the Mara^ha country, wrote
several works on the Bhagavata P., the chief of which were
the Harillldy which is an abstract of the Purana, and the
Muktdphala^ which sums up its teaching. His name thus
became associated with the Purana, and the myth about its
authorship arose.
3. The Bhaktas of the Mardthd country.
§ 278. The Vaishnavas of the Maratha country are Bhaga-
vatas, but it is not known when the Bhagavata P. began to
be used by them. In the thirteenth century the movement
became a popular one, and all their literature is in the
vernacular ; so that there are marked differences between them
and the Bhagavatas of the Tamil and Kanarese districts. The
unbroken tradition of the country is that the Bhakti movement
began with a poet named Jnane^vara, who is popularly called
Dnyandev or Dnyanoba. According to another tradition,
which appears in the Bhakta Mdldy he was a disciple of
Vishnusvaml.
Jiianej^vara is the author of a work in MarathI verse on the
Bhagavadgltd called the Jndneivatt^ which runs to 10,000
couplets. Its date is A. D. 1290. The work is advaitist in
tone, but it also lays great stress on yoga, and the author
1 Jacob, EACr.sff.
BHAKTI ~ 235
says he is the disciple of Nivrittinath, the disciple of Ganinath,
the disciple of Gorakhnath.^ He is also the author of the
Haripdthy a collection of a8 abhahgs^ or hymns. His poetry
decidedly shows the influence of the Bhdgavata^ and his note
is that of an enthusiastic bhakta. Tradition makes him the
greatest of a group of saints. His poems are philosophical
in tone and full of reflective thought, and have had a great and
lasting influence on the educated classes. There need be no
doubt that he was the coryphaeus of the whole bhakti move-
ment of the Maratha country. It is not at all unlikely that
he should have also come under the personal influence of
VishnusvamT, who was probably his senior by some thirty
or forty years at most.^ That would account for the fact that,
while scholarly Maratha Bhagavatas still use the old Bhagavata
mantra, Om namo Bhagavate Vdsudevaya^ the mantra in
common use is Rama-Krishna Hari. which is the VishnusvamI
Mantra.* It ought to be noticed, however, that Jnane^vara and
the other Maratha bhaktas do not, like Vishnusvami, recognize
Radha. He is also the author of the A mritdhubkava^ an ad vaita
Saiva philosophical work in MarathI verse. He was thus a true
Bhagavata, honouring Siva as well as Vishnu, and following
Sankara in philosophy.
4. The Mddkvas.
§ 279, The first sect directly founded on the Bhdgavata P.
seems to have been the Madhvas. They are simply an off-
shoot from the Bhagavatas, the sole reason for the schism
being the detestation in which the founder held Sankara's
Vedanta. Madhva (i 199-1278),* the founder, was born at
Udipi in South Kanara, and organized his sect in the early
decades of the thirteenth century. While still quite young,
he became a sannyasi, and received a training in Sankara's
system. But in addition to the regular Vedanta treatises, he
gave much time to the Aitareya 6^., the Mahdbhdrata^ and
* This statement occurs in his Amritdnubhava, * See below, § 281.
' See § 281. * Bhandarkar, VS, 58 f. ; Grierson, ERE, VIII. 232.
236 BHAKTI
the Bhdgavata P. This last work clearly dominated his
religious life. Before his period of training was over, he
broke away from Sankara. Soon after, he began public
discussion, and gradually formed a system for himself, based
in the main on the Bhdgavata P. He was successful in
gathering a community of some size and in winning a number
of notable converts. The theology which he taught is in
many points like Ramanuja's ; but the philosophy is frankly
dualistic. He distinguishes very sharply between man and
God, and thus stands further away from Sankara than any
other exponent of the Veddnta^sutraSy except perhaps Vishnu-
svaml. Apart from the theology, his system is very similar
to that of the Bhagavata sect. The centre of the religion is
the adoration of Krishna by bhakti, as taught in the Bhdga-
vata^ without recognition of Radha ; but all the other avataras
are reverenced. Siva also is worshippped, and the five Gods
are recognized.
Madhva's chief works are his Bhdshya and Anuvydkhydna^
both on the Veddnta-sutras, The Bhdshya is a comparatively
short prose treatise, which seeks to show by an array of proof-
texts that Madhva's explanation of the Sutras is the only right
one. The texts are drawn from {a) the Rigveda^ (b) the
Upanishads and the Gitd, {c) the Puranas, the Vaishnava
Samhitas, and other late works. The book is thus of very
little interest except as an account of the teaching of the sect>*
His exposition of the Bhdgavata, the Bhdgavata^tdtparya-
nirnaya, and a companion volume on the Mahdbhdrata are
also works of considerable importance for the sect. He wrote
commentaries on ten Upanishads.
The followers of Sahkaracharya opposed and persecuted
Madhva with a good deal of bitterness; so that ever since
^ It also gives us many quotations from the Puranas and Saihhitas
which ought to be useful as revealing in part the condition of these texts
in his time. The Samhitas quoted are the Bhdgavata^ Vardka, Ndrdyana,
Purushottaffiay Parama, Mdydvaibhavay which occur in Schrader's list,
IP AS, 6 ff. ; and the Vyoma, Brihaty and Mahd besides. The Brihat is
quoted by Madhava in his exposition of Madhvism : SDS» v.
BHAKTI 237
those days there has been little love lost between the two
groups. Madhva believed himself to be an incarnation of
Vayu, and, probably as a result of Sankarite persecution, he
taught that Sankara was a reincarnation of an obscure demon
named Manimat who appears in the Mahdbhdrata}
About half a century after Madhva's death, Jayatlrtha was
the head of the sect. His commentaries on the founder's
most important works are amongst the chief books of
the sect.
5. Rddhd.
§ a8o. Neither the Bhagavatas, nor the Madhvas recognize
Radha : they do not go beyond what is contained in the
Bhdgavata. But all the later sects who depend on the great
Purana do recognize Radha. We must therefore ask whence
her story came.
We have seen above that in the Bhdgavata P. there is
a gopl whom Krishna favours so much as to wander with
her alone, and that the rest of the gopis surmise that she must
have worshipped Krishna with peculiar devotion in a previous
life to have thus won his special favour. This seems to be
the source whence Radha arose, and it is probable that the
name Radha comes from the root rddh in the sense of
conciliating, pleasing. She is thus the pleasing one. In what
book she first appeared is not yet known, but an Indian
scholar ^ suggests to me that it may have been the Gopdla-
tdpanl' Upaniskad, which contains an account of Radha, and is
reverenced by all Radha-worshipping sects.
Two early sects recognize Radha, the Vishnusvamis and
the Nimbarkas, but the chronology and the relationships are
* ^ankara's demon-origin is mentioned in Madhva's exposition of the
M ahdbhdrata. After his death, Pandit Narayana, the son of one of
his disciples, published two Sanskrit works, the Manimanjarl and the
Madhvavijaya, in which the theory of the two incarnations is fully set
forth. See Grierson, ERE,y VIII. 232. It is possible that the Sankara-
vijayas were written as a counterblast to these Madhva works. A long
polemic against Madhvism has also been interpolated into the Saura
Purana, * Pandita Radha Charana GosvamI of Brindaban.
238 BHAKTI
still obscure. Tradition sets the leaders in the following
order, Madhva, VishnusvamI, Nimbarka ; and that order
seems to (it in with their teaching ; for Madhva does not
recognize Radha at all, and Vishnusvaml's theology is very
similar to Madhva's, while Nimbarka strikes out quite a new
line for himself. Yet the seemingly natural may not be the
historical order. There is one historical fact which necessarily
suggests a doubt : it is quite clear that Radha was worshipped
and praised in song in "North India before Madhva's day ; for
Jayadeva's Gltdgovinda belongs to the end of the twelfth
century. There is a tradition in Bengal that Jayadeva was
a Nimbarkite ; but in the Gltdgovinda Radha is the mistress,
not the consort, of Krishna, as she is in Nimbarka's theology.^
Sufficient evidence does not seem to be available to settle
the question, but we may conjecture that the myth of Radha
grew up quite spontaneously at Brindaban on the basis of the
narrative of the Bhdgavata P., and that her worship was
organized there, perhaps about A. D. 11 00, and thence spread
to Bengal and elsewhere. If that is the history, Jajradeva's
poetry, on the one hand, and the rise of the two sects, on the
other, are easily explainable ; and it is possible that Nimbarka
may have developed his Radha-theology at Brindaban while
VishnusvamI was forming his simpler system in the south*
6. The Vishnusvdmis.
m
m
§ a8i. Of VishnusvamI very little is known, but it is believed
that he belonged to the South. His system is precisely like
the Madhva system, except that Radha is acknowledged.
She is simply Krishna's favourite among the gopls, his
mistress. VishnusvamI, like Madhva, is a dualist, quite as
pronounced as Madhva, if not more so. Tradition states that
he wrote commentaries on the Gztd, the Veddnta-sutras^ and
the Bhdgavata P, His Bhdgavata-bhdshya is referred to by
^ He lived under Laksmana Sena, King of Bengal, who reigned c. UTO;-
1200 (Smith, EHL 403) ; and some of his verses appear in the Sadukii-
karndmrita^ an anthology by ^ridhara Dasa, which dates apparently from
A.D. 1205. The chronology is also opposed to his being a Nimbarkite.
BHAKTI 139
Srjdhara Svamin in his comment on Bhdgavata P. I. J ; and
it is said that the work survives, but it has not been seen by
any scholar. In M adhava's Sarvadarsanasahgraha there is
a reference to Vishnusvaml's devoted adherent, Srikanta Mi^ra,^
and to a work by him named Sdkdra-siddhi, the teaching of
which is clearly dualist. The Bhakta-mdld says that Vishnu-
svami was also the teacher of Jnane^vara, the Maratha bhakta ;
and the story is probably true.^ In any case it is clear that
the sect -was widespread and popular for centuries.* The
sectarian mantras are said to be Om Rdma-Krishndya namah^
and Om Rdma-KHshna Hari. The Vishnusvamis and all other
Radha-worshipping sects use the Gopdlatdpanlya U. and the
Gopdlasahasrandma.
The Bhagavatas, the Madhvas and the Vishnusvamis, like
Ramanuja,^ uphold the Samuchchhaya doctrine ; i. e. they
teach that, in seeking release, men should perform their full
religious duty as Hindus as well as seek the knowledge of
Brahman, while Sankara finds release in knowledge alone.
7. The Nimbdrkas.
^ § 28a. Nimbarka was a scholarly Bhagavata from the
Telugu country who settled at Brindaban, accepted the story
of Radha, and created a sect of his own. The date is uncer-
tain.^ Ni'mbarka's philosophic position is bheddbheda^ dualistic
monism.® He was considerably influenced by Raman uja, and,
like him, laid great stress on meditation. He goes far beyond
Vishnusvaml in his account of Radha. She is Krishna's
* Cowell, p. 141. " See § 278.
' For a suggestion with regard to the Ndrada Pahchardtra^ see § yj^j,
* See § 285. ^ See Bhandarkar, VS. 62.
" As Nimbarka's original name is said to have been Bhaskara, it has
been suggested that he is identical with Bhaskaracharya, who wrote the
Bheddbheda bhdshya about A.D. 900: see § 260. But the mere co-
incidence of name is scarcely sufficient to outweigh the following con-
siderations. It is extremely unlikely that one man should write a pure
Vedanta bhashya and also a sectarian Vritti; and, as our knowledge
of the literature stands at present, it would seem probable that the name
of Radha and her worship appeared at Brindaban at a date considerably
later than Bhaskaracharya, say about A. D. iioo.
240 BHAKTI
eternal consort, and lives for ever with him in the Cow-world,
Goloka, far above all the other heavens. Like her lord, she
became incarnate in Brindaban, and was his wedded wife
there. The story of the gopTs remains unchanged. To
Nimbarka Krishna is not a mere incarnation of Vishnu : he
is the eternal Brahman, and from him springs Radha, and
also uncounted gopas and gopis, who sport with them in
Goloka. Nimbarka thus necessarily centred all his devotion
on Krishna and his consort, to the exclusion of other gods.
He thus gave up the Smarta position of the Bhagavatas, and
became fully sectarian. All the later sects owe a great deal
to him*. He wrote a short commentary, a sort of Vritti^ on
the Veddnta-sutras called Veddnta-parijata'Saurabha^ and
a poem of ten stanzas, the Daiasloki^ which contains the
quintessence of his system ; but the Bhashya of the sect is
Srinivasa's Veddnta-Kaustubha, a lengthy work of considerable
merit. Later leaders also produced scholarly works. Nim-
barkas use the Gautamiya S} for their ritual ; and the
Krishna section of the Brahma-vaivarta P. seems to be a
Nimbarka document interpolated into the Purana. The San-
dilya-bhakti'Sutra may be of Nimbarkite origin.^
c. Pdhchardtra Literature^
I. The ^rt'Vaishnavas,
f
§ 383. The SrI-Vaishnavas of the Tamil country reached
the summit of their history during these centuries, and became
the model on which many other sects sought to form their
literature and organization. The introduction of the singing
of the enthusiastic lyrics of the Alvars ^ into the temple service
of the sect is an event of much importance. The use of Tamil /
in the worship brought the cult nearer the people; and the
rich and passionate devotion of the hymns made the bhakti of
the sect more vivid and real. The man to whom Vaishnavas
* Schrader, IP AS. 7, no. 44. * See § 277. ' See § 217,
BHAKTI 241
owe the change is Nathamuni.^ His date has been disputed,
but the end of the tenth and the beginning of the eleventh
century seems to satisfy the evidence best.^ He gathered the
hymns of Nammalvar and of the other Alvars, arranged them
in four groups of about a thousand stanzas each, and set them
to Dravidian music. The whole collection is called Ndldyira
Prabandham^ or book of four thousand hymns. He also suc-
ceeded in arranging for the regfular singing of these hymns in
the great temple of Srirangam at Trichinopoly, where he
resided. The practice spread to other shrines, and now obtains
in most of the more important temples.
But Nathamuni was also a theologian and teacher. Under
him a school of combined Sanskrit and Tamil scholarship
arose at Srirangam,^ whence he is called the first Acharya of
the sect. The study of the Ndldyira Prabandham was one of
the chief parts of the curriculum, and a series of commentaries
was written on them.
The succession of teachers is Nathamuni, Pundarlkaksha,
Ramami^ra, Yamuriacharya. Of the second and third * very
little is known, but the fourth, who was the grandson of
Nathamuni and lived in the middle of the eleventh century,
was a competent scholar and left several significant works.
He was a sannyasi, like the other teachers of the school. His
chief books are the Siddhitraya^ which seeks to establish the
reality of the human soul in opposition to the school of
Sahkara, the Agamapramdnya^ on the authority of the Vaish-
nava Agamas or Samhitas, and the Gitdrtha-sangraha, an
exposition of the Bkagavadgttd, all in Sanskrit. In these
works is found the earliest statement of the Vi^ishtadvaita
philosophy, of which Ramanuja is the classical exponent.
§ 284. Ramanuja received his early philosophical training
* ^He was the grandfather of Yamunacharya, whom Ramanuja succeeded
at Srirangam.
2 He was a contemporary of Nambi and of Rajaraja the Great. See
§ 306.
^ At quite an early date another school rose in the neighbourhood of
Tinnevelly. Govindacharya,y/?y4i'. 1912, 714.
* But see Rajagopalachariar, VRI.
R
24« BHAKTI
in Conjee veram from a teacher belonging to the school of
Sahkara, named Yadava Prakaia,^ but he disagreed with his
guru and adhered to the modified monism which was taught
at Srirangam. He was still a young man when Yamunacharya
died. AlthcJugh he had not been trained in the school, he was
already so prominent as a Vaishnava scholar that he was invited
to succeed him. He accepted the invitation, but did not settle
down to teaching until he had learned all he could from former
pupils of the school. The appointment gave him control of
the temple of Srirangam as well as of the school, and also
a sort of pontifical authority in the sect. He was most suc-
cessful as a teacher and controversialist. For some twenty
years he lectured, held discussions and wrote books. The sect
grew steadily in influence. He produced three philosophical
works of importance, the Veddrthasangraha, which seeks to
show that the Upanishads do not teach a strict monism, the
^rlbhashyuy a commentary on the Veddnta-sutras^ and a GUd-
bhdshya. The ^ribhdshya is a fine piece of work.
§ 285. The system taught in these works antagonizes Sah-
kara's illusionary monism with great skill and thoroughness,
and also opposes the Bhedabheda system of Bhaskaracharya.^
Ramanuja follows a long succession of theistic scholars, the most
famous being Bodhayana, who lived before Sahkara and wrote
a gloss, Vriiti, on the Veddnta-sutras^ now unhappily lost.^ The
following summary of the system is abridged from Thibaut : *
There exists only one all-embracing being called Brahman, who is
endowed with all imaginable auspicious qualities. The Lord is alt-
pervading, all-powerful, all-knowing, all-merciful ; his nature is funda-
mentally antagonistic to all evil. He contains within himself whatever
exists — material or immaterial — ^and is the 'internal ruler' of all.
Matter and souls, as forming the body of the Lord, exist in two
different, periodically alternating, conditions. During the period of
world-resc, matter and souls being apart from bodies, their intelligence
is in a state of contraction. The Lord is then said to be in his casual
condition. When the period comes to an end, creation takes place
owing to an act of volition on the Lord's part Unevolved matter
' See § 260. * See § 260. » See § 193. * SBE. XXXIV. xxvii ff.
BHAKTI 243
then, evolving, acquires its sensible characteristics, while souls enter
into connexion with bodies, and their intelligence undergoes expansion.
Owing to former actions, souls are implicated in the process of
transmigration ; and from this Release is possible only through true
knowledge of the Lord, which rests on a study of the scripture and
consists in constant devotion (bhakti) to him and meditation (upasana)
on him. The released soul enters paradise and enjoys intercourse with
the Lord for ever.
m
The Lord is a personal being. Brahman is but another name for
Narayana- Vishnu, the god of the Vaishnava sect.
Warm-hearted devotion to a god must have been a frequent
element in early Hindu religious feeling, and as early as the
Svetdsvatara U.y which probably dates from about the fourth
century B.C., we find it spoken of as an important part of the
highest religion. In the Gtid its place is more distinctly
affirmed. Here in the school of Ramanuja it becomes still
more prominent, for it is the loftiest and most important
factor in the means of deliverance. It remains, however, quiet
and meditative, an aspect of man's reaching out towards fuller
knowledge of God, and thus very different from the bhakti of
the Bhdgavata P.
Ramanuja holds, in opposition to Sankara, that the man
who wishes to win release ought to continue to do his duties
as a Hindu while he seeks the knowledge of Brahman with
a view to final release. Works and knowledge are both
necessary for the great end in view. This is called the
Samtichchhaya or * combination ' doctrine. The serious seeker
ought therefore to study the Karma Mimamsa as well as the
Vedanta. This theory is then typified in the fact that san-
nyasis of the school of Ramanuja do not lay aside the sacred
thread. They continue the worship of Vishnu and may even
act as ministrants in temples as well as heads of monasteries.^
* Sri- Vaishnava sannyasTs are quite a distinct order from i^ankara's
Da^namis. Only Brahmans are admitted, and they carry a triple danda
in contrast with the single danda of Sankara*s Brahman sannyasis : see
§ 198. The two orders are distinguished as EkadandTs and Tridandls.
Ramanuja's convert, Yadava Praka^a, wrote the Yati'dhanna-samuch'
chhaya on the duties of Tridandls : Govindacharya, R,^ 7 2, Non-Brahman
SrI-Vaishnava ascetics are called Ekangas.
R 2
M4 BHAKTI
§ a86. The writing of the ^ri-bhashya was a most important
event for the SrI-Vaishnavas. It was doubtless meant in the
first instance to provide the sect with a clearly expressed
philosophy in full accordance with its beliefs and its ancient
literature, a matter of great moment for the training of teachers
and ascetics. But it was not merely of large practical value.
The dignity of the sect was vastly enhanced when it was
brought into living connexion with the Vedanta by this illus-
trious work. It was the first sectarian bhashya ever written.
We may realize how valuable an acquisition it was felt to be
from the long array of similar works produced during the fol-
lowing seven centuries.^ It is also probable that Ramanuja
hoped, by linking the sect to the Vedanta, to get rid, to some
extent at least, of -the reproach of heterodoxy which had
dogged the sect throughout its history.^ His own punctilious
observation of caste rules in the matter of food and intercourse
with other castes was doubtless intended to help in the same
direction.
§ 287. There were two types of Vaishnava temples in the
south in his day, one class using Paiicharatra Samhitas for
their ritual, the other using Vaikhanasa Samhitas,^ the latter
class being probably Bhagavata shrines. Ramanuja did
all he could to unify the sect by substituting Pancharatra
for Vaikhanasa manuals wherever he could win over the
authorities.*
§ 288. While he held strictly by the ancient rule that none
but the twice-born may read the Upanishads, he was most
eager to teach both Sudras and Outcastes the doctrine of
Vishnu-bhakti. In this he was a faithful disciple of the Ajvars.
In certain places he arranged that the Outcastes should have
the privilege of visiting the temple one day in the year. But
there is no reliable evidence for the statement, so often made,
that he ate with Outcastes, or that he took any step to alter
^ See I 340. ' See § 94 and § 215.
^ See I 211 and § 384.
^ Rajagopalachariar, VRL 4 ; Padmanabhachar, L TM, 252 ; Govinda-
charya, R, 142.
BHAKTI 245
their social position.^ He maintained the ancient Hindu
restrictions in all their fullness. His position is clearly revealed
in the use of the pavitrUy or thread of purity, with which Sudra
and Outcaste adherents of the sect are invested. It is a low-
caste sacred thread. Acknowledgement is thus made that
they are capable of receiving spiritual religion, yet they are
kept rigorously apart from the twice-born. The Satanis ^ are
a group of people of Sudra caste whom he taught and con-
nected with the sect, but no suggestion was made that their
caste status should be altered.
He took a journey through India for the dissemination of
his system, and seemingly with great success. He went south
to Rame^varam^ up the west coast through Malabar and the
Maratha country to Gujarat, the north-west, and Kashmir, and
returned by Benares, Puri, and Tirupati to Srlrahgani. The
wide influence of the sect in later times was probably largely
due to what he was able to accomplish during this journey.
§289. In A.D. 1098 Kulottunga I, the Chola king, started
a persecution against the Vaishnavas, and Ramanuja was
obliged to flee. He withdrew to the Mysore, and there made
the acquaintance of the Crown Prince ^ of the Hoysala dynasty.
The royal family and a large proportion of the people were
Jains, but the prince was won over by Ramanuja and took
a new name to mark his conversion, Vishnuvardhana. For
a long period Ramanuja resided in Mysore, chiefly at Melkote,
teaching and discussing and building, and Vaishnavism became
firmly planted. The Chola persecutor died in 11 18, and in
112a Ramanuja returned to Srirangam, where he died in 1137.*
He is worshipped as an incarnation in the temples of the sect.
* See especially the early Tamil Life translated by Govindacharya,
Chap. X, and Rajagopalachariar, VRI, 141. * See § 385.
'He succeeded to the throne about ten years later and reigned until
A.D. 1 141. Rice, /jRAS, 191 5, 527 fF.
* The chronology of his early life is still doubtful. Tradition places
his birth in A.D. 1017, but the whole life becomes more comprehensible if we
suppose he was born about 1050 and succeeded Yamuna about 1080.
A record which was recently found in his monastery in Melkote, Mysore,
makes it plain that he arrived in Mysore in 1098 and left in 1 122 : JRAS.
1915, I47ff.
246 BHAKTI
§ 290. There is no lack of early biographical material. Not
to speak of contemporary poems and such like, which arose in
the school, his early life is dealt with in the Bhutapurl Md^
hdtmya (Bhutapurl is Sri Perumbudur, where he was bom),
a section of the Hdrlta Samhitd^ while in other Samhitas his
later activities are dealt with. The livara Samhitd speaks of
Sathakopa, i.e. Nammalvar, and Ramanuja, contains a Mahat-
mya of Melkote in Mysore, and enjoins the use of the Tamil
hymns of the Ndldyira Prabandham. The Brihad Brahma
Samhitd also refers to Sathakopa and Ramanuja, and speaks
of the Dravida land as the place where Vishnu's devotees
abound. These texts must be old, the sections dealing with
Ramanuja being probably twelfth-century interpolations.
Finally, in the thirteenth century, a detailed Life was written
in Tamil by Pinbalagla-Perumal-Jlyar.
§ 291. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, or possibly
early in the fourteenth, the head of the school of Srirangam
was Pillai Lokacharya. He wrote a brief treatise in San-
skritized Tamil, the Artha-panchaka^ or Pentad of Truths,
which is a very excellent summary of SrI-Vaishnava doctrine.
Sudar^ana Bhatta, who ruled at Srirangam towards the close
of our period, may be mentioned as having written a com-
mentary on the Bhdgavata P.^ which, though not mentioned
by Ramanuja, had in the interval won itself a place in the
sect.
§ 292. The mantra of the sect is the fatnous early mantra,
Oin namo Ndrdyandya} A sect-mark and the branding of
symbols on the body are in use, in accordance \yith the rules
of the Samhitas. The sect and its system are both called the
SrI-Vaishnava Sampradaya, i.e. the tradition with r^ajb^ to
Sri (i.e. Lakshmi) and Vishnu. No other Hindu sect is more
^ The old erroneous statement, so often repeated, tliat the mantra of
the sect is Om Rdntdya namah, comes from Wilson {Sects, 40), and
probably arose from the idea that the mantra of Ramanuja must be the
same as Ramananda's: see § 387. ^rl-Vaishnavas use also a secret
mantra called the Dvaya, or dual mantra, which is clearly phallic, referring
to !^rl and Vishnu : Govindacharya, jR, 14, 48, 52.
BHAKTI 247
exclusive in its allegiance ; the worship of Siva or any god
other than Vishnu, his consorts, and his representatives, is
forbidden. Radha is not acknowledged at all. In matters of
food and caste SrI-Vaishnavas are extremely strict. The sect
ministers to all the four castes, while for many centuries the
outcastes were taught Vishnu-bhakti, and several outcaste
names occur in the list of SrI-Vaishnava saints. Yet the
strength of the sect is in the Brahman community. Every
Sri-Vaishnava Brahman bears one of two names, Acharya or
Aiyahgar.
2. The Manbhaus.
§ 293. The Mahanubhavas (i.e. men of the great experience)
or Manbhaus are a Vaishnava sect found in the Marathi-
speaking area, who claim a high antiquity for their system but
acknowledge that their organization dates from the thirteenth
century.
Several noteworthy characteristics, which they, have in
common with the Vira Saivas, are probably to be explained
as due mainly to racial and local facts, partly to the influence
of Ramanuja. The more noteworthy of these features are
these: Both are rather more heterodox than ordinary Vaish-
nava and Saiva sects, so that Hindus frequently deny that
Manbhaus are Hindus at all, and some Vira Saivas deny that
the Vira Saiva sect is a Hindu community. They are both
strictly sectarian, Vira Saivas worshipping Siva alone, Man-
bhaus recognizing Krishna alone. Both sects refuse to worship
images, though each worships a symbol of its own god. In
each sect all full members may dine together. Both sects
are strictly vegetarian, both bury their dead, and in both
the ascetics are of far more importance than the temples.
Each sect claims to have five founders. Any caste-Hindu is
welcomed as a full member in either sect if he is willing to
undergo initiation. Round each of the two sects there is
a circlet of half-converted groups who do not keep the full
law. As the Vira Saivas are about a century older than the
248 BHAKTI
Manbhaus, it is possible that the latter may have followed the
example of the former sect in some points.
§ 294, The unexplamed figure of Dattatreya hovers shadowy
and indistinct behind Manbhau history. The sect claims him
as the source of its system. If, as is possible, a real historical
sannyasi is concealed in this mist, his connexions were with
the Maratha country and with Yadavagiri (i.e. Melkote) in the
Mysore.^ He is usually represented as a sannyasi with three
heads, so that he stands for the trimurti, and he is accompanied
by four dogs and a cow, which stand for the Vedas and the
earth ; but Manbhaus deny that they worship him in this
form. To them he is an incarnation of Krishna.
Chakradhar, who flourished in the middle of the thirteenth
century, seems to be the actual founder of the sect as we know
it. He was followed by Nagadeva Bhatta, who was a con-
temporary of Ramachandra, the Yadava King (i 271-1309),
and of Jiiane^vara,^ the author of the Jndneivart. He did
a great deal to propagate the community. Of their later
history very little is yet known. It is clear that' they have
suffered from orthodox opposition.
Krishna is to them the Supreme, and they will worship no
other god. * There are many devatas, but only one Parame-
^vara.' They have, therefore, their own places of worship, and
will not enter ordinary temples. Instead of an image, they
have in their shrines a quadrangular or circular whitewashed
terrace, which they worship in the name of God. The nature
of their worship seems to be unknown. They speak of Datta-
treya as their founder, and therefore call their system the
Dattatreya Sampradaya, the Sri-Datta Sampradaya, the
Muni Marg (the reference being to Dattatreya), or the Man-
bhau Fanth.
But while they speak of Dattatreya as their original founder,
they say they have had a fresh founder in each of the four yugas.
^ The Manbhaus connect him with the Sahyadri Hills, while the
Yadavagiri Mahdttnya of the Ndrada P. tells how he visited Yadavagiri
in the Mysore. See § 289.
« See §278.
BHAKTI 249
They thus recognize five pravartakas^ propagators (also called
the Panchakrishnd)} and have a mantra connected with each.
When any one wishes to become a Manbhau, he must repeat the
five mantras and accept initiation from a Manbhau monk.
§ 295. They fail into two well-marked groups, ascetics and
householders, ascetics again falling into two distinctly organ-
ized groups, monks and nuns. On the monks rests the sect
with its teaching, discipline, and worship. Monks and nuns
are carefully kept separate.
Their chief scripture is the Bhagavadgttdy but they have
a large literature of their own in Marathi. In consequence of
the persecution they were subjected to, they adopted a modi-
fied Marathi alphabet for their literature, so as to keep it
secret. This is one of the reasons why it is still so little
known. Amongst their oldest books are the Ltld Samvdd,
the Ltld Charita^ and the Sutrapdth. Perhaps we may take
these as belonging to this period. The Dattdtreya U? and the
Datidtreya S? are probably also connected with the movement.
3. The Narasimha Sect.
§296, Very little is known about the activities of the
Narasimha sect during this period, but it is clear that the god
was still popular. The huge monolithic image at Vijayanagar
is proof that the dynasty favoured him. There are still many
families in which he is the patron of the family. The Nara-
simha S.^ may belong to this period. The Narasimha
Upapurdna^ which has been already mentioned,^ was translated
into Telugu about A.D. 1300.
4. The Rdma Sect.
§ 297. Serious members of the Ramaite sect, whose early
literature has been already noticed,® found it hard to reconcile
the entirely human words and actions of Rama and Sita in
Books II-VI of the Rdmdyana "^ with their belief that Rama
^ Darsan PrakdSf 58. ' No. 112 in the list, p. 364.
' No. 61 in Schrader's list, IPAS, p. 7. ^ Schrader, IPAS. 8,
"" See § 218. « See § 219. ' See § 48.
250 BHAKTI
is the eternal God. The Adhydtma Rdtnayana, or spiritual
Ramayana, in seven books, bearing the same names as the
books of the early Epic, tells the whole story afresh with
a view to meeting these difficulties. The theology is advaita
throughout, but ^akta elements are added, so that Slta has
a place beside theeternal Kama. In order to shield Sita from
the reproach of having been carried away by Ravana and kept
in his harem, she enters the fire, leaving only an illusory Sita
behind her, before the appearance of the demon ; and the real
goddess does not return until the fire-ordeal at the end of the
story. When Rama at any point talks as a man, it is explained
that his divine consciousness is temporarily clouded by mdya.
Release is obtainable in Rama alone ; fervent bhakti is the
path to release ; and a Rama mantra is taught.^ The man who
wishes to obtain release must give up works altogether ; for
they only bind the soul to samsdra. The work is thus
opposed to the Samuchchhaya^ doctrine. It contains the
Rdma-hridaya^ in eight ^lokas and the Rdma-gitd^ in fifty-
six ^lokas, compendia of doctrine meant to be committed to
memory for constant repetition and meditation. The work
clearly depends not only on the Rdmdyana and the advaita
Vedanta but also on the Bhdgavata P. and the Ramaite
Agastya Samhitd^ mentioned above.® There were already
many Ramayanas '^ in existence when the book was written.
Among these there was undoubtedly the Pampa-Ramdyaffaf
a Jain version of the Epic in Kanarese ^ ; and possibly the
author may have known the Yoga- Vasishtha^ the Adbhuta^ and
the Bhusundi Ramayanas. There existed also an Adhydtma
NdrdyanUy which is several times quoted by Madhva in his
Bhdshya. The date of the work is probably the thirteenth or
fourteenth century : Eknath, the MarathI poet, who died in
A.D. 1608, calls it a modern poem.^^ It was translated into
^ III. 8, 34. « See § 195 and 285. » I. i. * VII. v.
» See III. ii, iii; IV. iv; VI. v. « § 219. ' II, iv. ^^.
' Some of the episodes in the Adhydtma are hke epiisodes in the Pampor
Rdmdyana. • Rice, KL, 30, 33.
^» Bhandarkar, VS. 48.
BHAKTI 251
Malayalim in the seventeenth century. There is also a Kana-
rese version.^
There can thus be no doubt about the existence of an old
sect which found release in Rama alone. Was it in the south
or the north ? It would be perilous to be dogmatic : but the
relations of the literature thus far tend to indicate the south
rather than the north. There is no distinct Ramaite sect in
the Tamil country to-day, but there are many Rama-bhaktas,
i.e. sadhus, who find salvation in Rama. These, in all proba-
bility, are survivals of the old sect.
E. oaiva Literature.
a. Pdiupata ^aivas.
§ 398. A fifteenth-century commentator, Advaitananda,
gives us in his Brahmavidyabharana a clear sketch of Pa^u-
pata theology which enables us to realize the essentials of the
system. The five categories mentioned by Sankara ^ really
give the roots of the system : (a) the cause, Pati^ (b) the effect,
nature and Paiu^ (c) yoga practices, (d) Vidhi^ requirements,
i.e. various necessary practices, {e) Duhkhdnta^ release from
sorrow. They taught that true knowledge of the cause and
effect, constant yoga practice and meditation, and the regular
fulfilment of the rules of the order were all necessary for the
attainment of the end in view. The rules enjoin bathing and
sleeping in ashes, expressing exultation by laughter, dancing,
singing or bellowing, and pretending to be asleep, sick, lame,
in love, or mad. In release the soul was believed to attain
the divine perfections. The chief scripture of the sect seems
to have been a sutra-work called indifferently Pasupati-sutra
or Pdhipata-idstra^ but it does not seem to have survived.
I. The Lakuliias,
§ ^99. Of the Lakuliias, a branch from the main Pa^upata
stem, we have an account by Madhavacharya,^ the fourteenth-
* This Kanarese version contains a Madhva interpolation. Padmana-
bhachar, LTM, 133.
2 SBE. XXXiV. 434 ff. 8 In SDS, See Cowells's tr. 103.
!i52 BHAKTI
century Vedantist. The teaching seems to be identical with
the Pa^upata theory just sketched. The differences seem to
have been confined to the practices enjoined, e.g. bathing and
sleeping in sand instead of in ashes. Madhava quotes
a number of books, but in most cases he gives no indication
whether the books belong to the main Pa^upata sect or to the
Lakull^a branch, and all the literature seems to have perished.
Throughout the period the sect was most active in Gujarat,
Rajputana, and the Mysore, as is made clear by many inscrip-
tions. They are well summarized by Bhandarkar.^
2. The Kdpdlikas.
§ 300. No Kapalika literature seems to have survived ; so
that for this period as well as the previous one we are
dependent on scattered notices. The references to them in
the Sahkara-digvijaya imply that they were still active during
these centuries. Then, in the Prabodhachandrodaya, a drama
produced in A.D. 1065 which we have already used,* a Kapa-
lika ascetic and a KapalinI are brought on the stage and
Kapalika practice is described and illustrated with great
vividness. The evidence of the MdlatL-Mddhava^ is here
corroborated. Kapalika ascetics are practically Saktas : the
characteristic elements of Sakta-worship — human sacrifice,
strong drink, and sexual licence — appear, and with them the
Sakta jewellery of human bones, the elaborate system of yoga,
and the superhuman powers that spring therefrom. The
Kapalika, besides, dwells among the ashes of the dead^ and
eats and drinks out of a human skull. In this play a Buddhist
and a Jain ascetic appear on the stage, and are reduced to
a very miserable plight by the Kapalika and the nun who
accompanies him. Ramanuja's few sentences* on the system
corroborate the erotic element of this account ; for he says the
Kapalika meditates on himself as seated in the pudendum
muliebre.*
* VS. 119-20, * See § 270. ' See § 234.
* ^rfbhashyuy SBE. XLVIII. 520 fw « Cf. § 325.
BHAKTI 353
3. The Gorakhndthis.
§ 301. The Gorakhnathls (Gorakshandthis) seem to be closely
related to the Kapalikas. They form a sort of inchoate sect ; for
Gorakhnath (Gorakshandtha) is worshipped in many temples
in North India, especially in the Punjab and Nepal ; yet the
laity does not seem to be organized. The ascetics, who are
usually called Kanphata Yogis, i.e. Split-eared Yogis, are the
strongest part of the sect. It is most probable, but not certain,
that the movement sprang from a yogi named Gorakhnath.
§ 302. Goraksha seems to be a name of Siva ; a great
many wonderful tales have gathered round the name of
Gorakhnath, who is said to have founded the sect of Gorakh-
nathls; and both Tantrik Hinduism and Tantrik Buddhism
glorify the whole company of sainted Nathas ; so that one is
tempted to take all the tales as so much mythology. Yet
Gorakhnath is probably a historical character; for the
Kanphata Yogis are a well-defined group of ascetics, and the
rise of a new type of Yoga literature, with which his name is
associated, is clearly connected with the appearance of the
order. It seems most probable that he flourished about the
beginning of the thirteenth century ; for the earliest historical
reference to him yet noted occurs in the Amritdnubhava of
Jnanesvara, the Maratha bhakta, vAios^ floruit is A. D. 1290.*
Gorakhnath's name is associated with the rise of a new type
of yoga, which has had a considerable vogue in certain circles
but has never found its way into the ancient school of yoga.
It is called Hatha-yoga^ and its most distinctive element is the
theory that, by certain ritual purifications of the body and
certain prescribed physical exercises, the supreme concentration
of mind called samddhi in the old yoga can be attained. It
therefore deals with a large number of strange bodily postures
(asmid)^ purifications of the channels of the body (sodhand)^
> See § 278.
" * The later Yogin relies on asana^ the older muni on updsana * :
Hopkmsy /A OS. XXII. ii. 334.
254 BHAKTI
modes of breath-regulation {prdndydma), and exercises in
which posture, breathing, and attention are combined (mudrd),
and which bring with them miraculous powers. To Hatha-
yoga is usually added in the later books Rdja-yoga^ a more
intellectual discipline to which the physical training is then
subordinated. Gorakhnath is said to be the author of two
Sanskrit treatises, Hatha-yoga ^ and Garaksha-iataka? and on
them depends the later literature, which is dealt with in the
next chapter.^ Several works in Hindi verse exist which are
also attributed to the leader ; but as their date is said to be
the middle of the fourteenth century,* clearly they cannot be
assigned to him, unless it be found that an earlier date is
possible for them. They may have been written by his
followers. There thus seems to be sufficient ground for
believing that Gorakhnath was a noted yogi, that he lived and
founded his sect somewhere about A.D. laoo, and that early
stories connected with the name Goraksha and the Nathas
gathered round his head after his death.
4. The Raseivaras.
§ 303. Another Saiva school is described by Madhava,^
which was called the Rasei^vara or Mercury system, but does
not seem to have survived. The peculiarity of their teaching
was this, that they thought that, without an immortal body,
release could not be attained, and that the only way in which
an immortal body could be developed was by the use of
mercury, rasa^ which, thev declared, was produced by the
creative conjunction of Siva and his spouse. After the
acquisition of a divine body, the aspirant, by the practice of
yoga, wins an intuition of the Supreme, and is liberated in
this life. A number of ancient teachers of the school are
named, and several philosophic manuals.
* This book does not seem to exist to-day, but see Hall, 17.
* Hall, 18 ; Aufrecht, Cat Sansk, MSS. in Bodleian Library^ 236.
' See § 423. * Misra Bandhu Vinodey 21.
^ SjDS., ch. ix, Cowell, 137.
BHAKTI ^55
b. Agamic Saivas.
I. The Sanskrit School of Saiva Siddhdnta.
§ 304. In his Sarvadarsanasahgraha ^ Madhava describes
what he calls the Saiva Dar^ana, and quotes in illustration of
its teaching six of the Agamas, as many writers, and several
anonymous works. All the literature is in Sanskrit, but,
apart from the Agamas, none of it seems to have survived.
Several writers, however, belonging to the school lived at
dates later than Madhava ; and these are therefore described
in our next chapter. We call it the Sanskrit school of Saiva
Siddhanta.
This school and the teaching of the Tamil Saivas as contained
in the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta are usually treated as one,* but
•it seems quite clear that they are distinct. The Sanskrit school
has in the main a following of Brahmans, many of them being
temple-ministrants, its Vedantic standpoint is Vi^ishtadvaita,
and its literature is in Sanskrit ; while the following of the
Tamil school is almost entirely non-Brahman, its Vedantic
standpoint is Advaita ^ or, according to other writers, Bhed-
abheda,* and all its literature is in Tamil.
2. Tamil Saivas.
§ 305* The literature of the Tamil Saivas belonging to this
period is extremely rich in lyrical poetry, theology, and
historical legend. The chronology is still obscure in many
points, but the relations of the larger events are fairly clear.
Pattinattu Pillai, who probably lived in the tenth century, is
the author of some beautiful devotional verse, which, along
with the work of several minor authors, found a place in the
sacred Canon ; ^ but a number of poems of a highly monothe-
istic and Puritan character, which belong to a much later date,
* Cowell, 112.
' e. g. see CowelFs tr. of the Saiva Darsana in Madhava's SDS.
* NallasvamI, SSS, 63, 67, 68, 88, 244. The standpoint is sometimes
called ^ivadvaita.
* So Umapati, Tiru-arul-payan^ Ixxv.
^ In the Eleventh Tiru-murat,
256. BHAKTI
have been erroneously assignied to this tenth-century poet
They are dealt with below.^
§ 306. Nambi-andar-nambi was a contemporary of Natha-
muni the Vaishnava leader and of Rajaraja the Great, the
Chola king (a.d. 985-1018). He gathered the Tamil hymns
of The Three into one collection, named it the Tevaram,
i.e. DEVArAM, the Divine Garland, and with the help of
Rajaraja had them set to Dravidian music. He then arranged
to have them sung in the chief shrines. An inscription of
Rajaraja's shows that he introduced them into his magni-
ficent temple at Tanjore. Sung by a special choir, quite
distinct from the priestly ministrants, they gave the worship
a fresh interest and splendour without disturbing the ancient
Sanskrit liturgy. Manikka Vachakar's glorious verse was
probably too recent to find a place in this collection.
§ 307. Nambi's name is also connected with the fonnation
of a larger body of Tamil scripture, which is called the TIRU
MURAI, i.e. the Sacred Books. He collected most of the
Saiva hymns then in existence and grouped them in .eleven
books ; * and the collection was completed by the addition of
a twelfth in the twelfth century. The contents are : (a) the
TevdrdtHy (b) the Tiruvdchakain, (c) the Tiru Isaipa^ lyrics by
nine authors, {d) the Tirumantram, (e) miscellaneous poems,
including Nambi's own works, (/) the Periya Puranam^ or
Great Legend, a Liber Sanctorum, forming the Twelfth Book.
Sekkirar, the author of the Periya Purdnam^ the Great L^end,
may be dated in the first half of the twelfth century. It is
a poem in seventy-two cantos on the lives of the sixty-three
Saiva saints of the Tamil country, and is founded on a decad
of Sundarar's and the Tondar-tiruv-antddi^ which is one of
Nambi's poems. No work is more loved by Saivas than the
Periya Ptirdnam. To about the same date we may assign
a famous translation, the Skanda A, done into Tamil verse and
called the Kanda Purdnam, by Kaiichl-Appar of ^onjeeveram.
* See § 426.
^ He began the compilation in the reign of Rajaraja and finished it
under his son Rajendra I.
BHAKTI 357
§ 308. Thus far the Tamil Saivas had no formulated
theology of their own but were dependent on the Agamas,
which are probably of northern origin and are in Sanskrit.
The defect was remedied by a brilliant school of thinkers, who
were also Tamil poets, during the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. Meykanda^Deva, who is regarded as the fountain
of the dogmatic, was a Sudra and lived early in the thirteenth
century on the bank of the Penner river to the north of
Madras. He translated twelve Sanskrit sutras from the
Raurava Agama ^ into Tamil verse. To this work, which is
known as Siva-jnana-bodka, * Instruction in Knowledge of
Siva ', he added a few notes in Tamil prose, and a series of
logical analogies also in prose in support of his re|soning.
The system which this work unfolds is called the Saiva
Siddhanta, or * Reasoned Saiva system \ He was also a noted
teacher and had many pupils. His most famous disciples are
Arulnandi Deva and Manavachakam Kadandan. The latter
is famous for his Unmai Vilakkam^ a treatise in fifty-four
stanzas consisting ^ questions and answers on the main
points of Siddh^lita teaching. The former wrote the Siva-
jhdna-siddhiy a noted work in two parts, of which the first
is a criticism of ^ther Indian schools of thought, including
Buddhism and Jainism, while the second is a full statement of
Saiva Siddhanta teaching so put as to form a rich commentary
on his teacher's masterpiece, and to meet, if possible, all
objections to the Saiva Siddhanta. Arulnandi's disciple was
Marai-jilana-sambandha, a Sudra and the author of Saiva-
samaya-neri, • A Brahman named Umapati from the temple
in Chidambaram became a disciple of his, ate the leavings of
his food and was in consequence excommunicated. But he
became the^supreme theologian of the sect, and left numerous
works, eight of which are included among the canonical books
of the Siddhanta. The following is the list :
* See § 225.
s
258 BH AKTI
THE FOURTEEN SIDDHANTA SASTRAS.
Uyyavandan (A) i. Tiruvuntiydr
Uyyavandan (B) 2. Tirukkalirruppadiydr
Meykanda Deva 3. ^iva-jhana-bodha
. , J. (4. Siva-jnana-siddhi
v
Umapati Sivacharya I
5. Irupdvirupathu
Manavachakam Kadandan 6. Unmai-vilakkam
7. ^iva-prakdsa
8. Tiru-arul-payan
9. Vihd-venbd
10. Porripakrodai
11. Kodi'kavi
12. NehchU'Vidu-tutu
I ^. Unmai-neri'Vilakkam
14. Sahkalpa-nirdkarana
The four — Meykanda Deva, Arulnandi, Marai-jnana-samban-
dha, and Umapati — who together form a succession of teachers
and disciples, are known as The Four Santdna Achdryas^
i. e. teachers forming a continuous series. There are two of
the writers whose dates are not known with certainty, the two
Uyyavandans. They are said to have flourished in the
latter half of the twelfth century, but it is possible that they
may belong to the school of Meykanda. It is possible that
the development of this dogmatic was influenced in some
degree by the literature of Kashmir Saivism ; for the later
stands quite near the earlier system ; yet Siddhantists do not
recognize the Kashmir literature as authoritative; and it is
much more probable that the Tamil Siddhanta was influenced
by the Sanskrit Siddhanta. The two are quite closely allied.^
The tradition in the sect is that Meykanda was directly taught
by some one from Kailasa.
3. Kashmir Saivas.
§ 309. All we know about Saivism in Kashmir during this
period is summed up in the growth of its literature ; and it
^ This stands out in Madhava's essay, SDS, VII.
BHAKTI 259
seems to have been the more philosophic side of the system
represented by Somananda's Siva Drishti that ruled the
development, although the study of the earlier literature was
still kept up. The chief followers of Somananda are his pupil
Utpalacharya, who is the author of the isvara'pratyabhijftd-
kdrikds\ Abhinavagupta (about A.D. 1000) who expounded
Utpala's Kdrikds in two commentaries, wrote several works on
the Saiva Agamas and a summary of the Pratyabhijiia doctrine
called Paramdrthasdra ; and finally Kshemaraja of the eleventh
century, who wrote the Siva-sutra-vimarHnl. After Kshema-
raja the movement died down ; yet the literature probably
influenced Saivism in South India during the thirteenth and
later centuries.
4. Vira Saivas.
§310. The Vira Saivas, also called Lihgayats, are a sect
which seems to have been founded on the borders of the
Karnatak and the Maratha country in the middle of the
twelfth century, and soon attained considerable proportions,
spreading rapidly towards the south, especially in the Kanarese
country. Lihgayats believe that the sect is extremely old, and
that it was merely reorganized in the twelfth century, but it
seems to be rather more probable that, while most of the
elements united in the sect are old, the sect itself came into
being about A. D. 1160.^ In the Karnatak for centuries the
mass of the people had been either Saivas or Digambara
Jains : the new sect seems to be essentially a fresh formation
meant to give Saivas a more definite theology and a closer
organization, and to win over the Jains to the worship of
Siva. Two features of the sect — the great prominence of the
monasteries, and the large measure of religious and social
equality which full Lihgayats enjoy within the sect — are
probably in part imitations of Jainism. Racial characteristics
may also have played a part in forming the organization ;
^ Bhandarkar believes it came into existence about a century earlier
KS\ 134.
S I
26o BHAKTI
for, as we have already seen,^ Lingayats and Manbhaus,
a Vaishnava community formed in the Maratha country about
a century later, have a large number of common features. Both
morality and bhakti are very prominent in Lihgayat teaching.
Critical scholars have usually held that the founder of the
sect was Basava, the prime minister of Bijjala, the Kalachuri,
who became King at Kalyan in A. D. 1 156, but Fleet is inclined
to believe that Ekantada Ramayya of Ablur, whose career is
mentioned in an early inscription, was the real leader, and that
Basava came in as a political and military auxiliary. The
tradition is that the sect was founded by five ascetics — Ekorama,
Panditaradhya, Revana, Marula, ViiSvaradhya ^ — who are held
to have sprung from the five heads of Siva, incarnate age after
age. These are regarded as very ancient, and Basava is said
to have been but the reviver of the faith. Yet the early
literature shows that the five were all his contemporaries, some
older, some younger. But the whole early history is still very
obscure ; and, until the early literature, Sanskrit, Kanarese,
and Telugu, has been carefully read and compared with the
inscriptions, this darkness is likely to remain.
§ 31 1. The organization of the sect is sufficiently noteworthy.
Five original monasteries, the first heads of which were the
five ascetics, must first be noted :
Monasteries, First Mahants.
1. Kedarnath, Himalayas. Ekorama.
2. Srl-j5aila, near Nandyal. Panditaradhya.
3. Balehalli, West Mysore. Revana.
4. Ujjini, Bellary boundary, Mysore. Marula.
5. Benares. Vi^varadhya.
In every Lihgayat village there is a monastery, and each is
affiliated to one of the five original monasteries. The
Jangamas are a caste, and. from them come nearly all I^ingayat
^ See § 295.
* These five are mentioned in the Suprabheda Agama,
BHAKTI 261
Gurus. Every Lihgdyat must belong to a monastery and must
have a guru : he need not visit a temple at all.
Lifigayats regard Siva as the Supreme, and must worship
him only : that is the meaning of the name of the sect, Vira
Saivas^ stalwart Saivas, worshipping Siva alone. Then, the
modes of their worship of Siva are two : each Lihgayat
worships his own Jahgama guru ; and he worships the small
linga^ which he wears in a reliquary hung round his neck,
whence the other name of the sect, Lingayat, lihga-wearers.
Image-worship is prohibited.
When a boy is born, the father sends for his guru, and the
ashtavarna^ eight-fold ceremony, which makes the baby
a Lingayat is performed: gurUy linga^ vibhuti^ rudrdksha^
mantra^ Jangama, tirtha, prasdda. These eight are held to
be * coverings *, protections against sin.
When a young Lingayat chooses a guru for himself, a cere-
mony is held in which five pots, representing the original
mahants of the five great monasteries, are used. These are
placed precisely as the symbols used by Smartas in their
private worship are placed.^ Four are so placed as to form
a square, while the pot which represents the monastery
to which the chosen guru is affiliated is placed in the
centre.
A Lihgayat worships privately twice a day before meals.
He sits down, takes his linga from its reliquary, places it in the
palm of his left hand, and goes through the prescribed forms
of meditation and adoration in that posture. Meditation is in
accordance with the six sthalas?
When the guru visits the home, an elaborate ceremony,
padodaka, i. e. the washing of the feet of the guru, is performed,
at which all the family, and possibly friends as well, are present.
* The lihga is to the Lingayat what the sacred thread is to the twige-
born Hindu. No full Lingayat may wear the sacred thread, even if he be
of the best Brahman blood.
* See § 352.
^ These are six stages of spiritual progress, through which the Lingayat
passes in seeking union with Siva, bhaktiy mahesa^ prasdda^ prdnalihga^
sarana, aikya.
262 BHAKTI
The head of the house also worships the guru. The guru sits
down in Yoga posture, and the householder, sitting before him,
goes through the sixteen operations of Hindu worship, and
other elaborate ceremonies.
There are a few Lingayat temples, most of which have been
built as memorials to individuals, but they do not form
a necessary part of the organization of the sect.
§312. The word Jangama is used in two senses, first for
a member of the caste, and secondly for a practising Jangama.
Only the latter is worshipable. Most Jangamas marry and
earn their living. Those who wish to become practising
Jangamas must remain celibate They must also be trained
in a monastery and receive diksM, initiation. The whole sect
is in the hands of these practising Jangamas. They are of two
classes, Gurusthalas and Viraktas.
Gtirtisthala Jangamas are trained to perform all domestic
ceremonies and to act as gurus, and a number of them will be
found in every village monastery. These vill^e monasteries,
which are the real centres of Lingayat organization and life,
and the five original monasteries are called Gurusthala^
monasteries, because they are guru schools and residences.
But there are a few monasteries of another type, in which
philosophical and theological instruction is given, and in them
Virakta Jangamas are trained. They are usually called
Shatsthala monasteries, because in them the six sthalas or
stages in the process of reaching union with Siva are
taught. The duty of Viraktas is to teach.
§313. The social construction of the community, as it is to-
day, is difficult to understand, and the history behind it is still
more difficult. Lingayats affirm that Basava did away with
all caste distinctions, whether with regard to religious privfleges,
intermarriage, or interdining, but that at an early date the
community fell away from this practice. It would be un-
pardonable to speak dogmatically aSout Basava's teaching
^ Gurusthala monasteries fall into two sub-classes, Sishyiwarga and
Putravarga,
BHAKTI 2.6^
until the early literature has been critically examined, but, in
the light of other cases in which similar claims have been
made, only to be proved untenable when carefully investigated,
it is surely wise to reserve judgement. A somewhat similar
condition of affairs in the Manbhau sect suggests the idea that
the original community in each case may have consisted of
a number of social groups among whom caste restrictions were
still very elastic. A desire to win over the Jains may have
helped to perpetuate the freedom.
In order to understand the present position of affairs, we
must distinguish between full Lingayats and semi-Lingayats.
Among the latter Lingayat practice is imperfect and caste
restrictions are confessedly rigid. Of these semi-Liiigayats
there are two groups. The first are the Aradhya-Brahmans,^
who are found mainly in the Kanarese and Telugu districts,
and are clearly half-converted Smartas. They wear both the
sacred thread and the linga. In their private worship they are
Lingayat, but they intermarry with Smarta Brahmans,
a Smarta performs the wedding ceremony for them, and they
will not dine with other Lingayats. The second group are the
Outcaste Lingayats, for whom no Jangama will perform the
full ceremonies, and who are not admitted in any sense to
Lingayat society.
Amongst full Lingayats caste restrictions in marriage remain
rigid, but all are free to dine together. As a matter of fact
Jangamas and certain high-class business families do not usually
interdine with the rest. When the guru visits a disciple, they
dine together.
§314. AH full Lingayats bury their dead, and no thought of
pollution is associated with the place of i>urial. They are
vegetarians and strict abstainers. Child -marriage is con-
demned, and widow remarriage is allowed, but some sections
of the community have fallen back.
Vira Saivas are taught that each person may attain Release
* In Mysore there is a group known as Arddhyas^ who are pure
Lingayats and do not wear the sacred thread.
264 BHAKTI
in this life by practising the prescribed meditations and passing
through the six stages. Bhakti holds a large place in their
practice. Their philosophy ^ shows very clearly the influence
of Ramanuja, and from an early date the teaching and litera-
ture of the Tamil Saivas exercised a considerable influence
on them.
§315. Lingayat literature is mostly in Kanarese and San-
skrit, but there are also several rather important books in
Telugu. Unfortunately, so little critical study has as yet been
spent on them that, in many cases, it is impossible to assign
dates or to sketch their contents.
One of the very earliest works is the life of Panditaradhya,
the Mahant of Sri-Saila. It was written in a mixture of
Sanskrit and Telugu by Somanatha, who lived at Palakurki
near Warangal during the reign of the first Prataparudra,
i. e. in the last decades of the twelfth century. He is also the
author of the original Basava Purdna^ which is in Telugu
verse. There is another important work in Sanskrit which may
be even earlier, the Srikara-bhdshya on the Veddnta'Sutras:
its date is discussed in our next chapter.
There are also a number of Lingayat documents in the
Agama literature.^ The Sukshma is entirely Lingayat, while
the Suprabheduy Svdyambhuva^ Kdmika^ Paratneivara^ and
Vdtula all contain Lingayat material. It is probable that
these sectarian works are of fairly early date.
Of great importance for popular Lingayatism are the early
Kanarese sermons known as Vachana. Some are attributed
to Basava himself, others to later men. The character of the
Kanarese in which some of these are written proves that they
belong to the thirteenth century at latest.^
There are then the Kanarese Purahas, which are of various
dates. The Siddhardtna (the legendary life of the first Mahant
of Sholapur) for example, by Raghavanka, the pupil of Hari-
^ See Bhandarkar, VS. 134 if. * Seep. 193.
' My informant is Rao Sahib P. G. Halkatti of Bijapur, who has
translated those attributed to Basava into English. Unfortunately they
are still unpublished.
BHAKTI 265
hara, is a fourteenth-century work ^ ; and several others may
belong to the same century.
F. Sdkta Literature.
a. The Left-hand School.
§ 316. A considerable list of Tantras can be formed which
seem to date from the tenth or the eleventh century. A MS.
of the Brahma- Ydmala bears the date A.D. 1052,^ and a MS. of
the Nitydhnikatilakay a work dealing with the daily rites of
the Kubjika sect of Saktas, is dated 1197^; while in the
works of two Saiva scholars belonging to Kashmir, Abhinava-
gupta, vAiose floruit is A.D. 1000, and his disciple Kshemaraja,
there are quotations from the Devi- Ydmala^ Kulachuddmani^
Kdlottaray Ktilasdra^ Amritesa^ and Mdlini-vijaya Tantras^
Clearly these cannot be dated later than the tenth century.
Lakshmldhara, a scholar who lived at Warangal towards the
end of the thirteenth century,^ quotes from the Vdmakesvara T.
a list of sixty- four Tantras, which is almost the same as the
list found in MSS. of that Tantra to-day. As the Vdma-
kesvara was already an authoritative work in his time, it must
be a good deal older. The Kulachuddmani T. also contains
a list of sixty-four Tantras, which is very similar to the Vdma-
kesvara list. In each of these lists there are three groups of
Tantras which we may take to be characteristic of the first
half of the period, eight Bhairavas, eight Bahurupas, and eight
Yamalas. These last — the Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra^ Lakshmi,
Umd, Skanda, Ganesa, and Graha Ydmalas — receive their
name from Yamala^ a pair, the reference being to a divinity
and his ^akti in sexual union. The pose is called Sambara in
Nepalese Buddhism and Yab-yum in Tibetan Buddhism, and
images of this character were common.^ In their character
* Rice, KL. 43. * H. P. Sastri, II. xxii. ' lb. I. Ixiv.
* Hall, 197 f.; Chatterji, A'kS". zZ.
^ See Intra to SaMtidaryalahart by A. Mahadeva Sastri and Pandita-
ratnam K. Raiigacharya. But see also below, p. 389, n. i.
® H. P. Sastri, II. vii. ; Getty, GNB, 181 and passim. There are
similar sculptures on some of the temples at Khajuraho.
'266 BHAKTI
these Tantras are parallel with the Buddhist Tantras which
appear in the Tibetan Canon, and in Chinese translations, in
the tenth and eleventh centuries.^ Some of the names coincide,
Sambara, Jala-Sambara, Kalachakra, Mahakala.
The Saundaryalahari is a famous ode to the goddess in
a hundred stanzas, of which Stanzas 1-41 are frequently pub-
lished as a separate ode under the name Anandalaharl. The
whole is usually ascribed to Sankajacharya, but serious scholars
regard the ascription as a mistake. Lakshmldhara, the scholar
already quoted, who belongs to the end of the thirteenth cen-
tury, has a valuable commentary on it. As he unhesitatingly
accepts the authorship of Sankara, there must be a tradition
of some age to that effect behind him. The work thus goes
back to a fairly early date, but it is not yet possible to be
more definite. Another work often by mistake* attributed to
Sankara, the Prapanchasdra T,^ rather a foul book, has been
much used and has had many commentaries written upon it.
We cannot be mistaken in assigning it to this period. Along
with it we may take two books belonging to the Kaulas, who
are amongst the extremest of the baktas, the Kaula U. and
the ParcLsurdma-Bhargava-sutra. Of the latter we are told
that it is * a complete exposition of all branches of the Kaula
system', and that 'the worship of Devi according to the
Kaula marga is generally based on the directions given in this
work.' ^ Of the Kaula U. we are told that it is a work
in terse prose, the ethical code of the Kaulas. It is enigmatic, and
its directions are vague and indistinct. It hints that the shackles of
ritualism cannot lead to liberation, which can be secured only by throw-
ing off the blind restrictions imposed by social conventions.
There are some half a dozen other Sakta Upanishads, all of
which probably belong to this period. These are as follows :
two Tripurdtdpanlya Upanishads, modelled on the Nrisimha-
tdpaniya works, the Tripurd^ Shatchakray and Bhdvand
» See § 324.
' From confusion with' a non-Tantrik work of the same name.
' From an anonymous essay in SJM, III. (1897).
BHAKTI 1267
Upanishads, and finally the Devi C/., included in the fivefold
Atharvasiras U.} which doubtless rests on an original Sakta
Upanishad. The Tripurd C/., which consists of sixteen stanzas
and claims to belong to the Sakala Sakha of the Rigveda^ gives
a brief outline of the phil'osophic basis of the Sakta system
and describes the various modes of worship in use.
The Sdraddtilaka T. is a work of veiy great authority,
written by Lakshmana De^ika, a scholar belonging to the
eleventh century. The book deals almost exclusively, with
spells (mantras) and sorcery, and scarcely mentions ritual. It
is thus rightly connected with SarasvatT, who as goddess of
speech is called Sarada. It opens with a philosophy
of creation and of human speech. It describes and classifies
mantras, gives rules for the preliminary arrangements necessary
for the use of mantras, for initiation, and for the use of the
sacrificial fire. The body of the work deals with the formation
and employment of mantras. A few mudras are described and
many yantras. The last chapter is on Tantrik Yoga. The
Shatchakra U.^ mentioned above, deals, as its name implies,
with the six chakras of occult force supposed to He in the
human body. As Narayana commented on it, it must belong
to this period at latest. The Bhdvand C/., also mentioned
above, teaches that the human body may itself be considered
a Sri-chakra.
We may also note two vernacular Sakta works belonging
to this period, a Bexigali poem on Chandl belonging to the
thirteenth century and a Telugu translation of the Mdrkan-
deya P ,^ the date of which is about 1300.
b. The Right-hand School,
§ 317. There seems to be no evidence in the early literature
of the existence of any Devi- worshipping sect which repudiated
the coarser elements of the ritual, or of Devi-temples in which
animal sacrifice was not permitted. All seem to belong to
^ See § 207.
268 BHAKTI
what is now called the Left-hand ( Vdmdchdri) section of the
Sakta teaching and cult. But from the thirteenth century, if
not earlier, we hear of Sakta scholars who followed the pure
path of the Right-hand (Dakshindchdrl) section, and also of
Right-hand literature. In Gujarat and in South India to-day
there are many Devi-temples in which no animal sacrifice is
permitted. The individual scholars with their private practice
and the temples with their public cult seem to be both con-
nected with the Smarta community^ and the cult is in full
conformity with Vedic usage. Can it be that these facts point
back to a mediaeval reformation ? It is curious that, in tradi-
tion as well as in the pseudonymous Sahkaravijayas, there is
said to have been such a movement, and it is attributed to
Sankara. For example, in Conjeeveram local tradition says
he compelled the goddess Kamachlamma, i.e. the Love-eyed
Mother, to give up human sacrifice. A very remarkable image
of Sankara is worshipped in her temple there,^ and the
ministrants are Nambutiri Brahmans, who declare themselves
descendants of priests introduced from Malabar by Sankara.'
§ 318. The first scholar, so far as we know, who follows the
Right-hand path is Lakshmldhara, who has been already
mentioned. His name as an initiate was Vidyanatha. In his
commentary on sloka 31 of Saundaryalaharl he gives the list
of sixty-four Tantras discussed above, and also gives two other
lists as follows :
Misra or Mixed Tantras \ (1) Chandrakala, (a) Jyotisvati,
(3) Kalanidhi, (4) Kularnava, (5) Kule^varl, (6) Bhuvane^vari,
(7) Barhaspatya, (8) Durvasasa.
Samaya or Subha^ i.e. Pure^ Tantras-. (1) Vasishtha,
(a) Sanaka, (3) Suka, (4) Sanandana, (5) Sanatkumara.
By Mixed Tantras he seems to mean books which give instruc-
tions for the worship of the goddess with a view both to
earthly blessings and release, while Pure Tantras teach only
^ See a print from a photograph in my Primer of Hinduisnty 119.
* Maclean, ERE. VII. 646.
BHAKTI 369
the way to release. They teach how by meditation and yoga
practice the Devi may be raised from the Muladhara, through
four other chakras, to Ajna, and thence to the Sahasrara.^ This
practice is called ^rividyd. Unfortunately this last group of
five works is not yet known, and no account of them can be
given.
c. The Bhakti School,
§ 319. There is another form of Right-hand worship among
Saktas which has come from the influence of the Bhdgavata P.
Release is sought by the path of enthusiastic emotional bhakti
towards the goddess. The chief scripture of this discipline is
the Devi Bhdgavata y which is usually reckoned one of the
Upapuranas. The devotees of the goddess, however, deny
that it is one of the Upapuranas and affirm that it is the
original work to which the fifth place among the Puranas
belongs by right, and that the Krishna Bhdgavata was written
by Vopadeva about A. D. 1300. A remark which Sridhara *
makes at the beginning of his great commentary on the
Bhdgavata P. enables us to realize that this claim was already
common in his day. It is thus clear that the Devi Bhdgavata,
being posterior to the Bhdgavata P, and prior to Sridhara,
who lived about A.D. 1400, belongs to this period. It is not
yet possible to say anything about the date of the Agastya-
stitras^ which expound the bhakti of the Devi Bhdgavata and
are thus parallel to \S\^ Ndrada and Sdndilya-^vXr^^^,
G. Saura Literature.
§ 320. It is probable that the splendid rise of the chief sects
of the Vaishnavas and Saivas during our period gradually
weakened the cults of the Sun, Gane^a, and other minor gods.
The Sauras have an honourable place in the Prabodhachandro-
daya.^ There were several great temples built to Surya during
the early centuries,^ but towards the end the popularity of the
^ See* Avalon, TGL. cxxxii ff. ' See § 326.
^ See the essay in SJM, III. (1897). * See \ 270.
^ Notably Mudhera in Gujarat and Kanarak in Orissa.
270 BHAKTI
god waned. There is very little literature to notice. A few
chapters ^ in the Brahma P. containing the theology of Surya
and the praise of Orissa and of the temple of the Sun at
Kanarak, and the song of the Sun-god in Bengali recently
published by Mr. Dinesh Chandra Sen * may belong to this
period, and the great inscription at Govindapur in the Gaya
district by the poet Gangadhara,^ which dates from A,D. 1137,
is a Saura document.
H. Gdnapatya Literature,
§331. The Ganapatya sect clearly continuecl active during
the early centuries of this period, even if it decayed towards
the close. The usual sectarian mantra seems to have been
^ri Ganesdya namah^ while the sect-mark was a circlet of red
minium on the forehead. The most important document" of
the sect, apart from the Upanishad described above,* is the
Ganesa Purdna^ the bulk of which consists of legends in
glorification of Ganesa, including stories of his having cured
leprosy, but also deals with the theology and the worship of
the sect and details the thousand names of the god. Gane^
as the supreme Brahman can be known only by mystical con-
templation, but he may also be worshipped through his images
in the usual Hindu way. TheMudgala P, is also a Ganapatya
work, but seemingly of later origin. The date of the JSankara
Digvijaya is very doubtful, but it may with safety be regarded
as reflecting facts belonging to the latter half of the period.
It speaks of the Ganapatyas as divided into six sub-sects,
according as they worship Maha-Ganapati, Haridra Ganapati,
Uchchhishta-Ganapati, Navanlta-Ganapati, Svarna-Ganapati,
and Santana-Ganapati, while one section of the Uchchhishta-
Ganapatyas revered Heramba-Ganapati and had very foul
' XXI-XXVIII. » VSP. I. 23-4 ; 164-71.
^ Epigraphia Indicay II. 338.
* See § 239.
® The legends are briefly described by Stevenson, JRAS. VII.
319. The reference to More^var, noted by him, is probably an inter-
polation.
BHAKTI 271
rites.^ Many of these forms of the god occur also in the
Mudgala P.^ and a number of them are still to be seen in
images in South India,^ but the sects have all disappeared.
Yet, as the sect decayed, the position of the god as a minor
divinity, the god of obstacles and success, adored by all
Hindus, became firmly established. He is praised in this
sense in the Skanda P,^ and elsewhere. To this period also
belongs a singular document which gives one of the many
variant myths about his birth and his elephant head, the
Ganesa-Khanda of the Brahmavaivarta P} The story is told
to glorify Krishna as the Supreme, this part of the Purana
being probably of Nimbarkite origin.^
I. D karma Literature.
§322. The gradual decay of Tantrik Buddhism in Bengal
and Orissa left a deep but not altogether healthy deposit in
Hinduism. In most cases it was the old sects that received
the deposit, but in one case at least there was a fresh growth.
The central member of the Buddhist Triratna — Buddha,
Dharma, Sangha — gave birth to a new Hindu god, Dharma,
whose worship spread abroad and produced an important
literature in early Bengali, which bears many marks of its
Buddhist source. The prime scripture is the Sunya Purana^
a lineal descendant of Nagarjuna's Sunyavada, by Ramal
Pandita, which seems to come from the eleventh century. It
deals with both theology and ritual. One of the chief names
connected with the cult is Lau Sen, King of Maina in Bengal
in the eleventh century, who worshipped Dharma, and from
whose heroic feats a famous legend arose. This story forms
the basis of a series of Bengali romances known as the Dharma-
* They were unclean Saktas, like the Buddhists who adored Heramba.
^ This work catalogues thirty-two forms of Ganapati, while the Sdradd-
iikaka T, speaks of fifty-one forms : Krishna ^astrl, SIL 1 73.
3 lb. 165-76.
* Skanda P., Prabhasa Mahatmya. See Kennedy, HM, 352.
fi Wilson, IVorks, III. 103 fF. « See § 282.
^ Sen, HBLL,
37^ BHAKTI
mangal poems, written from the twelfth century onward. The
earliest writer was Mayura Bhatta.^
ii. Buddhism.
A. The Sdktas.
ki'^i' The Tantrik University called Vikramaiila, on the
Ganges, founded early in the ninth century, rose to splendour
about the opening of this period and showed a great succession
of scholars for two centuries. Yet the religion was slowly
dying, poisoned by Tantrism and weakened by Hindu violence
and criticism. Few books were produced except Tantrik
works and manuals of logic,^ and even these failed towards
the end of the eleventh century. Islam destroyed Buddhism
in India in the great conquest of the North just before
A.D. 1200.
§ 3^4. There is a considerable number of Tantras and related
works which, from their common features, and from the dates
at which they were translated into Chinese and Tibetan, would
seem to belong to the tenth century or thereabouts. One of
the most distinctive, the Srikdlachakra 7"., is said to have
been written in A. D. 965. The Chandamahdroskana^ He-vajra^
Heruka^ Ddkuii-jdla-sambara^ Manjuiri-mulay and Bhuta-
ddmara Tantras, and the Manjusri-ndma-sangiti^ (called
also Paramdrtha-ndma'Sanglti)^ in which a long list of the
names of MaiijusrI forms a hymn of praise, belong to the
same time and class.
§ 335. In these there appears first an intensification of the
erotic features of Tantrism.^ New Buddhas, each with his
^akti, make their appearance, e.g. Heruka and VajrayoginI,
and the high religious value of intercourse with women is more
insisted on than ever. It was probably as a result of this
^ Sen, HBLL, soflf. '^ Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 135 ff.
' Vajrasattva utters the Chandamahdroshana T, from the pudendum
muliebre of Vajradhatvlsvan. Cf. the Buddhist Tantrik monk in Act III
of Prabodhachandrodaya (pp. 34 f. in Taylor's tr.), which was produced
about A. D. 1060, and see § 300.
BHAKTI
273
movement that the practice of representing in scripture these
Buddhas in sexual union with their spouses arose, a practice
which appeared also in Hinduism.^ In Bengal the erotic
Buddhism of this period was called Sahaja.^ Romantic love
for beautiful girls was made the path to release. Very little
of the literature of the school remains, but it is reflected later
in the poetry of Chandldas, the Hindu ^akta, and its foul
practice long infected Bengal.
§ 326. The second fresh feature of these works is a theistic
or pantheistic theology,^ the final outcome of the Mahayana
theory of the three bodies of the iSuddha* and of the idealism
of the Vijiianavada school, especially as expressed in the term
alayavijndna!' The movement was also powerfully influenced
by the Vedanta,by the theism of the Nyaya,and by Saivism.
The universe and all Buddhas come from an eternal being
called Adi-Buddha, i. e, the original Buddha, and Svayambhu,
i.e. the self-existent, the process being represented by the
triple system of Dhyani-Buddhas, Dhyani-Bodhisattvas and
•
Manushi-Buddhas, as follows :
Vairochana
Samanta-
bhadra
Dlpankara
ADI-BUDDHA.
Dhyani-Buddhas,
Akshobya Ratnasam- Amitabha
bhava
Dhyani-Bodhisattvas »
Vajrapani Ratnapani Avalokite-
svara
Mdnushi- Buddhas,
Kanaka- Kasyapa Gautama
muni
Amoghasiddha
Visvapani
Maitreya
The three grades of being are suggested by the three bodies
of the Buddha, while the five beings in each grade come from
the original five Buddhas of early Buddhism, the three Former
* See § 316.
' Kumaraswamy, The Dance of Siva, 103 (New York, 1918) ; Sen,
HBLL. 37.
» See Poussin, ERE, art. * Adi-Buddha'.
^ See § 176. ^ See § 178.
T
274 BHAKTI
Buddhas, Gautama, and the coming Buddha, for these are
the Manushi Buddhas of the third grade. The theory was
developed alongside Tantrism, which teaches that every
Buddha and every Bodhisattva has a wife.
By five acts of his contemplative power {dhydna)\ the Adi-
Buddha creates five Dhydni-Buddhas. The Dhyani-Buddhas
have nothing to do with man or the world, but live in thought-
ful peace in nirvana. Each, however, has a son who is a
Dhydni-bodhisattva and has never been a man. Through him,
in tum, a Mdnushi-Btiddha^ i. e. a human Buddha, is brought
into being, and a world within which the Manushi- Buddha
plays his part.
In most of the forms of this theology the eternal One is
personal, so that the system is distinctly theistic, e.g. the
Aij^varika system of Nepal, but in others, where Vijnanavadin
thought is prominent, the idea tends to exclude personality
and thus to approach the pantheistic conception of Brahman
as held by Sahkara and other Mayavadins. The system is
found most often in Tantrik works, such as the Srlkdlachakra
y., but it was held by Mahayanists also ; for it appears in the
Gunakdrandavyuha^ which is a new poetic version of the old
Kdrandavyuha, ^
B. Buddhist Lands.
§ 327. Buddhism lingered on in great weakness in Bengal,
where a few pieces of literature may be traced,^ until the six-
teenth century, when the last groups of Tantrik monks and
nuns were absorbed by the Chaitanya sect.^ In Orissa the
faith has survived in disguised forms down to the present time.*
But if Buddhism died out in India proper, it continued to
thrive elsewhere.
§ 328. In Nepal, in the first part of the period, we trace the
rise of the Ai^varika, or Theistic, system explained above, and
fresh literature seems to have been written. It is in Nepal
^ See § 175. ^ Sen, HBLL. 15-55. ' See § 370.
* Vasu, Archaeological Survey of Mayurabhunja^ Chap. II.
BHAKTI 275
that the theistic Gunakdrandavyuha^ is found. The same
theology appears in the Svayambhu P., which is a Mahatmya
of Nepal and probably is as late as the twelfth or thirteenth
century.^ The DasabhumUvara is a later recension of the
Madhyamaka Dasabhutnaka-sutra? augmented with resumes
in Prakrit verse. It is found in Nepal.
The most interesting fact about Nepalese Buddhism is that
its sacred books were in Sanskrit, and the great majority of
existing Sanskrit texts, whether Mahayana or Tantrik, have
been found there. They can be most conveniently studied in
R. L. Mitra's Nepalese Buddhist Literature. No traces of
a Nepalese* Buddhist Canon have been found. The character
of the texts found there would naturally lead to the conclusion
that the books in use in the middle ages must have been very
similar to those of Tibet, i. e. the literature is Mahayana with
a considerable infusion of Tantrik works. Further, while
there is no real Canon, there is a curious sort of substitute for
one : Nine very famous works — eight of them being Mahayana
sutras, the ninth, one of the greatest of the early Tantras — are
held in special reverence and receive regular divine worship.
The following is the list :
THE NINE DHARMAS.
1. Ashpxsdhasrikd Prajndpdramitd,
2. Gandavyuha.
3. Dasabhumisvara.
4. Samddkirdja.
5. Lankdvatdra-sutra,
6. Saddharma-pundarika,
7. Tatkdgata-gukyaka.
8. Lalita^vistara,
9. Suvarnaprabhdsa,
1 See § 326.
2 This inference rests on a reference to Radha (Mitra, 254) : See § 280
3 See § 177.
T 2
276 BHAKTI
§ 329. Buddhist literature in Pali has been written in
Ceylon continuously until our times,^ and also in Burma from
the eleventh century downwards.^
§ 330. In A. D. 972 the Chinese Canon, as it then was, was
printed from wooden blocks. Numerous editions followed ;
for the blocks were often destroyed by fire or by civil war.
But many new translations, especially of Tantrik works, were
added between A. D. 972 and the beginning of the fourteenth
century.^ Since then there has been no change. The full
Canon was printed in the fourteenth century, and has since
been frequently published.*
§ 331. Corea and Japan did not translate the sacred books,
but contented themselves with the Chinese Canon. It is
important to realize how wide a field the Chinese Canon —
a set of rather imperfect translations — has had for its
influence. A few years ago, stimulated by' the example
of the Christian Scriptures in Japanese, one of the Amida
sects® published Japanese versions of the three Sukhavat!
texts which they regard as supremely valuable, but until
then no Japanese could read a Buddhist text in his own
tongue.
§ 332. Though the bulk of the Tibetan translations had
been made by the end of the ninth century, more were added
in the eleventh, and a few as late as the thirteenth century.
The following quotation gives some facts about the Canon as
published :
The whole forms a series of over three hundred volumes, each of
which with its wooden covers makes a package about 26 in. long,
8 in. broad, 8 in. deep, and weighing about 10 lb. The volumes
generally are in the form of xylographs, or prints from carved wooden
blocks, as with ancient Chinese books, no movable type having been
employed ; occasionally MS. sets of the entire canon are to be found.
The sacred texts consist of two great collections : (a) the canon, and
(b) the commentaries.
* Wintemitz, II. i. 174-81.
* Mabel Bode, Pali Literature of Burma. • Nanjio, Cols. 450-8.
* Nanjio, Intro, xxii. ** i. e. sects that worship Amitabha.
BHAKTI %^^
The canon, or Ka-gyur (vulgarly Kanjur)^ 'translated word', forms
a series of one hundred, or in some editions, one hundred and eight,
volumes, and comprises 1,083 distinct books. It is divided into seven
great sections, as compared with the three divisions of the Pali canonical
scriptures, or Tripitaka.
The commentary Tan-gyur (vulgarly Tanjur) is a great encyclopaedic
library of ancient lore on metaphysics, logic, composition, arts, alchemy,
&c., including the commentaries of ancient Indian Buddhist writers,
Nagarjuna and others, and also some texts by Tsong-Kha-pa and other
Tibetan saints.^
About A. D. 1206 Jenghiz Khan the Mongol conquered
Tibet. His grandson Kublai Khan, converted to Buddhism
by a Tibetan abbot, gave this abbot and his successors
temporal power in Tibet in A. D. 1370, and opened Mongolia
to Buddhism. The abbot, with the aid of a staff of scholars,
carried out the stupendous task of translating the whole
Tibetan Canon into Mongolian. The Mongol script is a modi-
fication of Syriac which had been introduced into Central
Asia by Nestorian missionaries. Thus Indian Buddhist litera-
ture received a sudden expansion of influence, and was carried
wherever the Mongols went.^
iii. Jainism.
A. Svetdmbara Literature.
§ 333* Svetambara literature was already very rich and
varied at the opening of this period, and during the first three
centuries it rose to its utmost splendour and strength, dis-
playing all its variety and brilliance in its chief representative
Hemachandra. Then came the Muhammadan conquest of
the North, in which Jains were cut to pieces, harried, and
persecuted in the same way as Hindus and Buddhists were.
The fact that the community survived at all is proof of the
strength of its character and organization, but it has never
regained its former influence and splendour.
The work of elucidating books of the Canon in the classical
1 Waddell, ERE. yil. 789. ' ERE. VII. 786.
27S BHAKTI
style in Sanskrit, so brilliantly begun by Haribhadra and
Silahka in the ninth century, was carried forward by another
pair of writers, Abhayadeva of the eleventh century, who took
Sllanka for his model, and Malayagirl of the twelfth century,
who followed Haribhadra. There were other scholars—
notably ^antisuri, Devendragani and Tilakacharya — who did
further expository work of real Value in Sanskrit. Srichandra-
suri, a junior contemporary of Hemachandra, left a number
of Prakrit commentaries.
Several works of genuine religious power were written
during the period, especially by Hemachandra and Asada;
and Jain apologetic, dogmatic, and philosophy were eagerly
cultivated. Criticism of Hindu and Buddhist philosophy was
very popular, the writers usually following the example of
Haribhadra and calling their works * Six systems *. A number
of famous sacred odes were composed, the most notable
writers being Sobhana, his brother Dhanapala, and Abhayadeva
the expositor.
Innumerable romantic tales both in Sanskrit and Prakrit
appeared. Dhanapala, Devendragani, and Devabhadra wrote
in Sanskrit, while Hemachandra's Vasudeva Hintfa is in
Prakrit. Closely allied to these is \he prabandha, a narrative
of a semi-historical character consisting of a series of stories
about well-known men of the recent past, and also the charita,
or biography of a Jain saint. Both of these types of books
minister to the instinct which seeks to know the facts of men's
lives, but they are first of all edifying literature, and for that
reason the tales are treated with a good deal of freedom.
Hence, while a great many of the stories, especially those of
more recent date, contain historical elements, l^end plays
a large place in them.^ Most of these books are in Sanskrit,
but a few are in Prakrit, e.g. Gunachandra's Mahdvtra-
charita,
§ 334. During the first half of the period the powerful
influence of the Vedanta leads to the acceptance among Jains
^ Biihler, Hemachandra^ 6 ; Tawney, PfabandkackintSmani^ Pre£Eu:e.
BHAKTI 279
of a sort of Brahman, an eternal spirit behind the Tirthakaras ^ ;
and the idea survives here and there to this day, but it has
never really modified or weakened the essential atheism of
the system. This faint reflection of Vedantic thought in
Jainism is curiously similar to the far more powerful Adi-
Buddha doctrine in Buddhism.
§ 335* The following seem to be the most outstanding
personalities among the writers of the time.
Two brothers belonging to the latter half of the tenth
century, Sobhana and Dhanapala, the latter a prot^g^ of both
Muiija and Bhoja, kings of Malwa, distinguished themselves
greatly as writers of sacred odes in Sanskrit. Dhanapala's
Rishabhapanchdsikd^ fifty stanzas in praise of Rishabha, one
of the Tirthakaras, is well known, while Sobhana's hymns are
still more famous. Dhanapala's Tilakamanjarl^ a volume of
tales in highly artificial Sanskrit, is worthy of comparison
with the Yasastilaka by the contemporary Digambara scholar
Somadeva.
Abhayadeva is the greatest name among Svetambaras of
the eleventh century. Following the example of Sllahka, he
wrote Sanskrit commentaries on nine of the chief canonical
works, viz. the third to the eleventh Angas inclusive, and
many other texts. Of his original works the best known is
an ode to Parsvanatha called Jayatihuyanastotra^ which he
is said to have composed, as a plea for release from a disease,
while standing in worship before that Tirthakara's image.
Devabhadra (1086-1169), a famous logician, completely
defeated the Digambara scholar Kumudachandra in a con-
troversy on the question of the salvation of women, held at
the court of Jayasimha at Anhilvara-patan in Gujarat in A. D.
1 1 24, and thereby prevented the Digambaras from getting
a foothold in the city.
But the greatest of all Svetambara writers is Hemachandra,
who lived from 1089 to 1 1 73, and spent most of his life in Anhil-
' I A, VII. 106 ; Rice, Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptions ^ 103 ;
Suali, GSAL IX. 28 ; Barth, RL 146.
a8o BHAKTI
vara-patan the capital of Gujarat. He had great influence
at court from A. D. 1125 onwards, and still greater after 1159,
when he won over king Kumarapala to Jainism. He was
a writer of extraordinary industry, scholarship, and versatility.
His chief religious books are the Yogaidstra^ a treatise on
Jain ethics and asceticism, and the Vitardgastutiy a poem in
thirty-two stanzas in praise of the passionless life, both written
to establish his royal convert in the faith. His three works
in the field of legendary history and biography, already
referred to, are the Trishashti-ialdkd-purushacharita^ 2l Jain
history of the world, its appendix, the Parisishtaparvan^'^\i\^
contains the lives of the Jain prophets and teachers, and his
biography of Mahavira, the Mahdviracharita. His Vasudeva
Hinda^ a large collection of romantic tales, told in Prakrit
and mostly in prose, may be set beside Haribhadra's SaMordi'
chchhakahd. He is also the author of a Jain Ramayana, the
Rdntacharita, But his literary activity was not merely
religious but covered almost the whole field of the culture
and science of mediaeval India. He wished to give Jains the
fullest possible opportunity of becoming educated and capable
men. He therefore wrote on logic, grammar, rhetoric, poetics,
lexicography, and politics. His Sanskrit and Prakfit grammars
and lexicons are weighty scientific works which have been
widely used.
Asada came of the royal family of Bhilmal in Gujarat.
One of his sons died young, and a Jain teacher did his best
to give him religious consolation. The bereaved father wrote
in 1 191 the Vivekamanjari in memory of his son, working
the teacher's words of consolation into beautiful verse.
Another of his works, the Upadesakandall^ is praised as being
rich food for pilgrims on the road to Release.
Jinadatta*s Vivekavildsa^ which was written about A.D.
1220, is a sort of summary of religious knowledge, including
sketches of systems other than Jain.
Amarachandra, a noteworthy poet of the middle of the
thirteenth century, wrote for the Jains the Bdlabhdrata^
BHAKTI a8i
a sketch of the Mahdbhdrata in some 6,500 Sanskrit verses,
and a Kdvya on Padmanabha, the Jain Tirthakara who is
expected to appear next. He is also the author of three
works on poetics.
Prabhachandra is the author of the earliest life of Hema-
chandra, the Prabhdvakacharita^ which appeared about 1250,
while his contemporary Devendrasuri is remembered because
he wrote five of the six Karmagranthas.
Merutuhga (A) flourished early in the fourteenth century,
and is most famous for his Prabandhachintdmanu The first
four chapters of this prabandha contain a good deal of
valuable history and biography, but the remainder is legend.
He also wrote the Muhjaprabandha in Prakrit. Rajaj^ekhara
is the author of Prabandhakosa (published in J 349 at Delhi),
which is of considerable value, and a collection of tales called
A ntarakathdsahgraha.
B. Digambara Literature.
§ 336. The Digambara literature of the period is not so
rich as the Svetambara, yet it has considerable variety and
a large part of it is in Kanarese. Commentaries were written
on several of Kundakunda's works, and Nemichandra (late
tenth century) produced a number of fresh philosophic books
of considerable importance. Numerous puranas both Sanskrit
and Kanarese appeared, and legendary history and biography
were not neglected. Amongst the most popular works are
Jain versions of the Epics in Kanarese.
At the beginning of the tenth century lived Amritachandra,
a brilliant commentator. He expounded three of the works
of the early Digambara scholar Kundakunda, the Samaya-
sdraprdbhrita^ the Panchatthiyasamgahasutta^ and the Prava-
ckanasdrUy and wrote a work on the Digambara categories,
the Tattvdrthasdra^ and the Purushdrthasiddhynpdya on the
means whereby man may reach perfection. Balachandra
(c, 1 100) wrote a commentary on the Prdbhritasdra, another
of Kundakunda's works.
28a BHAKTI
One of the most famous of Kanarese poets is Pampa, who
wrote in 941 his Kanarese adaptation of the Mahdbhdrata^
which is known as the Pantpa-Bhdraia^ or the Vikramdrjuna
Vijaya. He is also the author of the Kanarese Adi Purdna,
We notice next the Yaiastilaka of Somadeva, a series of
tales told in very artistic Sanskrit, to recommend the Jainism
of the Digambara sect. It is technically a kathd, i. e. a com-
position in prose which breaks into verse when the story
becomes surcharged with feeling. It is a work of great
literary power, which would have held a high place in Sanskrit
literature, had it not been Jain. It was written in A. D. 960
under the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.
Chatnundaraya was chief minister to the Western Gahga
king Marasimha II and also to his successor Paiichaladeva.
They reigned in Mysore. He. is noteworthy first as having
erected at Sravana Bejgola a colossal image of Gommate^vara
about A. D. 980, and secondly as being the author of the
Chdmtmdardya Purdna^ which is the earliest existing work
in Kanarese prose and is dated A. D. 978. It gives an account
of each of the twenty-four Tirthakaras.
One of the teachers whom Cfiamundaraya revered was
Nemichandra Siddhanta-chakravarti, who is the author of
five dogmatic works in Prakrit verse, which have been much
used, Dravya-samgrakUy Gommatasdra^ Labdhisdra^ Ksha-
panasdra, and Trilokasdra. The Dravyasaingraha and the
Trilokasdra are always included among the books mentioned
under the Secondary Canon. He seems to be the Nemi-
chandra who lived about A.D. 990 and wrote the first Kanarese
novel, Llldvatl.
The Pdramdtma'prakdsa is ^ Sanskrit work in 344 stanzas
by SrI-Yoglndra Acharya, but the date is not known. The
purpose of the work is to oppose theistlc teaching, and the
method employed is to try to show that the human soul is
the truly divine spirit. Numerous Vedantic terms are used.
AiJadhara, a layman and a native of the country by the
BHAKTI 383
Sambhar lake, fled, while still a young man, from his home,
at the end of the twelfth century, to escape the violence of
the Musulman invaders and took refuge in Dhara. There
he became a learned Jain, and wrote fourteen works, most
of them on the Jain faith. The most famous of these is the
Dharmdmrita^ or Nectar of Religion, which describes the
duties of Jain ascetics and laymen. His Trishashtismriti is a
collection of stories about sixty-three persons drawn from the
Jain Puranas.
There were a number of notable men among the Kanarese
Jain poets. Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna — all tenth- century
men — are called the three gems, but Abhinava Pampa also
deserves a place beside them. Pampa's Adi Purdna is said
to be 'unequalled in style among the Kanarese poets'. His
Kanarese Mahdbhdrata^ called the Pampa Bhdrata, in which
he identifies his own princely patron Arikesari with Arjuna,
is also much admired. The fame of Ponna and Ranna rests
in each case on a Kanarese Purana. Abhinava Pampa, who
flourished about A^D. iioo, is also the author of a Purana,
but it is his Pampa Rdmdyana that has brought him glory.
It is a Jain recast of the ancient story. The whole atmosphere
is Jain, and all the heroes are faithful to the Jain faith.
We may also mention the Jivaka-Ckintdmani^ a Jain
Tamil Kdvya or romance in verse, written probably in the
tenth century.
* Barnett, BMCTB. 4.
CHAPTER VII
MUSLIM INFLUENCE
A.D. 1350 TO 1800.
§ 337. The new factor in the reh'gion of India during these
centuries is the influence of Islam. That influence seems to be
scarcely traceable in the literature before 1400 ; but we choose
1350 as the opening year of the new period, because it is most
probable that further research will succeed in discerning its
activities a good deal earlier. Islamic ideas are not so gener-
ally diffused as the great elements which have hitherto formed
the distinguishing features of our periods, but they seem to be
of greater importance than any other force operative during
these centuries.
It was, in the first instance, through the teaching of Sufis
that Islam found entrance to Hindu hearts. They fraternized
with Hindu ascetics and gurus ; and each learned to respect
the other's religious faith and life. But not until the last
quarter of the fifteenth century did the movement show any
notable force. Kablr was the man through whom the leading
ideas were popularized. From his time the condemnation of
idolatry and polytheism became frequent. But large sections
of Hinduism show little or no reaction to the influence of
Islam.
Perhaps the extraordinary rise of the vernaculars from the
fourteenth century onwards may be partly due to the serious
weakening of Sanskrit scholarship consequent on the impover-
ishment of Hinduism and the destruction of Hindu schools
and monasteries by the invaders.
Akbar, who had come to the throne in 1542, transformed
the character of the empire by his policy of giving Hindus
equal rights with Muslims and admitting them to the highest
positions in the army and the administration. He thereby
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 285
not only gave Hinduism freedom once more to raise its head,
but greatly changed the feeling of Hindus towards the Empire.
He had many Hindu works translated into Persian, and his
great-grandson, Dara Shikoh, followed his example.
i. Hinduism.
A. The Philosophies.
a. The Karma Mlmdmsd,
§ 338. From the very beginning of this period to the middle of
the seventeenth century there was great activity in the Karma
Mimamsa school. Three authors produced each a famous
treatise, and a very large number of ancillary works appeared.
The earliest, written during the first decades of our period, is
Madhava's Jaiminiya-nydya-mdld'Vistara, a full exposition of
the system in verse, accompanied by a commentary in prose.
Colebrooke says :
It follows the order in Jaimini's text ; not by way of paraphrase, but
as a summai7 (though the title rather implies amplification) of its
purport, and of approved deductions from it; sometimes explaining
separately the doctrine of Bhatta and of Guru, under each head ;
at other times that of the old scholiast ; but more commonly confined
to that of Bhatta alone ; yet often furnishing more than one application
to the same te:% as Bhatta himself does.^
This work has had a great vogue, partly because of its clearness,
largely also because the verses could be easily committed to
memory. The author and his brother Sayana were closely
connected with the court of Vijayanagara and with Sahkara's
monastery at Srihgeri. They are amongst the most illustrious
of Hindu scholars. Apa Deva^ wrote, about A.D. 1630, an
elementary manual, the Mimdmsd-nydya-prakdia, which is
usually called the Apadevi and has been much studied, because
it is easy. Then Khandadeva (died 1665) produced the
* ME. I. 300.
^ His son, Ananta Deva, author of the Sviriti Kaustubha^ wrote at the
command of Baz Bahadur Chandra of Kumabn, who died in 1678. Duff,
CL 281.
7,^6 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Bhdttadlpikd^ which has won itself an honoured place because
of its brilliant logical reasoning. Appaya Dlkshita^ {^S^*^-
i6iJ4) has a treatise in verse on the Mimamsa which was much
talked of in its day, the Vidhi-rasdyana : in it he attacks
Kumarila.
The Mimamsa has been atheistic, in the sense of not recog-
nizing the Supreme, throughout its history ; yet that has
never hindered Smartas, who almost to the last man recognize
the Brahman of the Upanishads,.from making full use of the
system. Vedanta-De^ika ^ in his Seivara Mlmdntsd main-
tains that Kumarila acknowledged the existence of God, and
other writers have argued that the acknowledgement of God
is quite consistent with its principles.
b. The Veddnta.
§ 339- During this period an immense number of treatises
were written on the advaita Vedanta, commentaries, super-
commentaries, summaries in prose and verse, and partial
expositions. Here we note only a few of the more noteworthy
manuals. At the beginning of the period there appeared'
the Panckadasihy Bharatitlrtha and Madhava, an independent
exposition in verse of the whole system running to fifteen
chapters, as the name implies. It betrays the tendency, which
went further later on, to bring into the Vedanta ideas belonging
to the other systems, especially the Sankhya. In the fifteenth
century, Advaitananda wrote the Brakma-vidydbharanay
a prose commentary on Sahkara*s Bhdshya which Colebrooke
found useful. His disciple Sadananda is the author of a brief
outline of the Advaita in prose called the Veddnta-sdra^ which
forms a useful introduction to the philosophy ; but the student
must realize that contamination of the Vedanta from the
Sankhya proceeds further in it than in earlier works. Madhu-
sudana SarasvatI, a sannyasi of the SarasvatI order, flourished
before A.D. 1550, and wrote a well-known work on the nature
of release in the Advaita, the Veddnta-kalpalatikd. He belongs
^ See § 354. '^ See § 381.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE
287
to the group who believe that all the six systems of Hindu
philosophy teach essentially the same doctrine.^ Vijiiana
Bhikshu's Vijndndmrita is a dualist bhashya, an attempt to
prove that the dualism of the Sankhya can be established
within the Vedanta.^
§340. Several fresh sectarian bhashyas were written during
this period. The following table may be found useful :
SECTARIAN BHASHYAS.
4pprox,
Name of
Philosophic
date.
Author,
Sect.
bhashya.
Standpoint,
[085
Ramanuja
^n-Vaishnava
•
Srt'bhdshya
Vi^ishtadvaita
[230
Madhva
Madhva
Sutra-bhashya
Dvaita
^III
Vishnusvaml
•
Vishnusvaml
Brahfna-sutra-
bhdshya
Dvaita
^III
Srinivasa
Niinbarka
Veddnta - kau-
Bhedabheda
•
stubha
:. 1400
Srikantha
• •
Saiva
f
Saiva-bhdshya
Vilishtadvaita
^VI
Vallabha
Vallabha-
charya
Anubhdshya
Suddhadvaita
?
•
Sripati
Lingayat
Srikara-bhdshya
^akti-visisht-
advaita
•
^uka
Bhagavata
Suka^bhdshya
Vilishtadvaita
^VITI
Baladeva
Chaitanya
Govinda- bhashya
Achintya-
bhedabheda
§ 341. A scholar named Narayana, who, coming later than
Sankarananda, the guru of Madhava, probably lived early in
this period, wrote commentaries on many Upanishads, and
gives a list of fifty-two Upanishads which is of considerable
historical importance. The Muktikd U. contains a list of
108 Upanishads of considerable interest. In the year 1656
Dara Shikoh, one of the sons of the Mugal Emperor Shah
Jahan, gathered a number of pandits at Delhi and got them
to translate fifty Upanishads into Persian. Anquetil Duperron,
the French scholar who went to India to study Zoroastrianism
in the latter part of the eighteenth century, obtained a copy of
See § 346.
^ His position is explained in § 342.
a88 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
this work, and when he returned to Europe translated it word
for word into Latin. This was the form in which 'the Vedanta
first reached Europe.
c. The Sdhkhya.
§ 34JJ. Throughout this period the Sdhkhya Kdrikd con-
tinued to be much read ; for Madhavacharya's summary of
Sahkhya doctrine in his Sarva-dariana-sahgraka, written
about A.D. 1380, is based on it ; and several commentaries on
it and on Vachaspati's Sdhkhya-tattva-kaumudi have been
written. But there are two other expositions of Sankhya
teaching which have also been largely used, the Sdhkhya-siUras
and the Tattva-samdsa, The date and the author in each
case are quite unknown. Max Miiller thought that the Tattva-
samdsa was older than the Kdrikd ; but scholars of to-day do
not follow him. Clearly, it is much more likely that these two
are comparatively late works ; for there is no clear reference
to either before the fifteenth century. The Tattva-santdsa
represents a form of arrangement of tfie Sankhya principles
considerably different from the form exhibited in the Kdrikd.
The Sdnkhya-sutra gives a good deal of space to criticism of
the other philosophical systems, including the Vedanta ; yet
it makes a very great advance towards the Vedantic conception
of God. Keith says ^ :
The work makes remarkable efforts to prove that its views are in full
accord with scripture, to which it attributes conclusive value, and
endeavours to show as accordant with the Sathkhya itself the statements
in scripture regarding the personality of God, the unity of the absolute,
the joy which is asserted to be part of the nature of the absolute, and
the heavenly bliss acknowledged in the Vedanta as a step on the way
to final release. Indeed the text goes so far as to hold that obedience to
the traditional rules of action has a good effect towards securing final re-
lease, and to talk of the attainment of the nature of the absolute.
The Sutra thus approaches the doctrine, which became very
popular during this period, that all the six Hindu systems can
* SS, 94.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 7,89
be shown to be in harmony with each other. There are other
developments of doctrine of less interest.^ In the middle of
the sixteenth century there lived in the vicinity of Benares
a Sankhya sannyasi named Vijiiana Bhikshu who carried this
movement a little farther. His fundamental conceptions seem
to have been those of the ancient theistic system called Sdhkhya-
yoga. In any case he was a Sankhya dualist, and yet a theist,
conceiving God not as the universal spirit, but as a special
soul, perfect and ever free. He wrote a bhashya on the
Sankhya Sutra^ the Sdhkhya-pravachana-bhdshya. In it he
gives expression to the conviction that all the six systems are
authoritative, in spite of their differences.
Sankhya sannyasis are now so rare that it is of interest to
know that, as late as 191 jj, a learned Sankhya yati named SvamI
Hariharananda was alive and teaching in Calcutta.^
d. The Yoga,
§343. Three useful works on Yoga produced during this
period may be mentioned. Madhava's chapter on the subject
in his Sarvadarsanasahgraha{c, A,T>. i38o),VijnanaBhikshu's
Yogasdrasahgraha (mid. sixteenth century), and Ramananda
Sarasvati's commentary on the Yoga-sutra^ called Maniprabhdy
written about A.D. 1600.
Yogis of this great old school have become very rare. I
have never had the good fortune to meet one.
e. The Vaiieshika and the Nydya,
§ 344. The work of the combined school of Vaiieshika and
Nyaya was vigorously pursued by Annam Bhatta and Vi^va-
natha PaHchanana, who were Vaiseshikas, and by Jagadl^a and
Laugakshi Bhaskara, who were Naiyayikas. All four lived
somewhere about 1600. The Bengali school of New Logic
started with Vasudeva Sarvabhauma,^ who taught at Nuddea
from 1470 to 1480, but was brought to full intellectual free-
^ See the fine analysis in Keith, SS, 92 ff. ^ Chatterji, HR, xiv.
^ Sen, CC, 80 fF. Sarvabhauma became an enthusiastic follower of
Chaitanya.
U
290 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
dom by his pupil, Raghunatha Siromani. There was a long
succession of teachers thereafter down to the end of the
seventeenth century.^
§ 345. The most famous of the numerous critical summaries
of philosophical systems written in India saw the light about
A.D. 1380, the Sarvadarsanasahgraha of Madhava. Sixteen
systems are sketched, arranged so as to form a gradually
ascending series. First come the materialistic Charvakas, the
Buddhists and the Jains, then six of the sectarian theologies,
and finally the Hindu philosophies,^ the whole series culmina-
ting in the Vedanta.^
B, Reconciliation of Systems,
§ 346. We noticed above * the statement made in the
Prabodhachandrodaya that the six systems of Hindu philo-
sophy are not mutually exclusive systems but that they all
celebrate from various points of view the same glorious and
uncreated God. Vijfiana Bhikshu,^ the sixteenth-century
Sankhya sannyasi, who is a theist, acknowledges that the
Sankhya system and the Karma Mimamsa are atheistic, yet
he holds that all the systems are authoritative, and reconciles
them by distinguishing between essential and practical truths,
the latter being false or imperfect theories inculcated with
a view to some practical end, and therefore to be neglected in
a general survey. Similarly, Madhusudana Sarasvati® wrote
rather later ;
The ultimate scope of all the Munis, authors of these different
systems, is to support the theory of illusion, and their only design
* See a full statement by Manamohan Chakravarti in J AS B, Sept. 191 5,
pp. 259ff.
? These are seven instead of six, because Panini's grammatical teaching
is included, on account of his theory of the eternity of sound.
' In the vulgate text of the work there is no essay on the Vedanta,
the explanation probably being that readers -were expected to turn to the
Pahchadasi, Recently, however, a text was published in Poona on the
basis of a manuscript discovered in Tanjore, in which an essay on the
Vedanta completes the work. Is this essay genuine?
* In § 270. * See § 342.
* Prasthdnabheda : Muir, OST, IV. 102.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 291
is to establish the existence of one Supreme God, the sole essence ;
for these Munis could not be mistaken since they were omniscient.
But as they saw that men, addicted to the pursuit of external objects,
' could not all at once penetrate iijto the highest truths, they held out
to them a variety of theories, in order that they might not fall into
atheism. Misunderstanding the.object which the Munis thus had in
view, and representing that they even designed to propound doctrines
contrary to the Vedas, men have come to regard the specific doctrines
of these several schools with preference, and thus become adherents
of a variety of systems.
§ 347. Most modern Hindu scholars occupy a similar stand-
point. Mr. J. C. Chatterji's statement ^ may be taken as
representative. The Nyaya, Vai^eshika, and Karma Mimamsa
systems are all realistic ; the Sankhya and the Yoga are
dualistic ; the Vedanta monistic. From this he proceeds :
Thus, in reality, there are only three metaphysical systems of the
Hindus. These systems again are not considered as mutually contra-
dictory. They are regarded as forming a graduated series in which the
three systems form, as it were, three great standards, suited to different
types or grades of minds — different intellectual (and only intellectual)
capacities and temperaments.
§ 348. The position of Kabir,^ and all his school, seems at
the first glance to be still wider ; for in him there is a recon-
ciliation of Islam and Hinduism ; but the truth in it is far
simpler, surer, and more practical. For the reconciliation is
between one school of Islam and one school of Hinduism, the
latter already seriously modified by the laying aside of
idolatry.
§ 349. But the boldest of all is Akbar's Divine Faith, the
Din Ildhi^ which was meant to sum up all religions, a creation
which died with its own imperial creator. A little later,
Hindu pandits at the court of Aurungzebe suggested to
Bernier* the idea that there might be many true religions, all
proceeding from the one God.
§ 350. Early in the eighteenth century, Prannath taught, at
* HR, 5. ' See § 396.
^ V. A. Smith, Akbar, 209 ff. * Travels, 328.
U '^
292 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Panna in Bandelkhand, that all the religions of India were
reconciled in his own person, since he was at once the Christian
Messiah, the Mohammedan Mahdi, and the Nishkalahkdvatdra^
* the stainless incarnation ', of the Hindus, and expressed the
dogma in his Kulljama Saheb}
C. The Hindu People.
§ 351. The Hindu people are still roughly divisible into the
three old groups. There is first the mass of the common
people, caste or outcaste, who belong to no sect, but acknow-
ledge all the gods and worship whichever they think is likely
to help at the' moment. There come next the orthodox
twice-born men, who acknowledge all the gods and worship
them with Vedic rites, and in addition hold some religious
philosophy, either monistic or theistic. The third group are
the Sectarians. Each sect holds a theistic theology, worships
its own god as the personal Supreme, and identifies him with
the Brahman of the Upanishads. Groups of the uncultured
common people may be found here and there, especially in the
south, who cling intelligently to a sectarian theology and cult
As will be evident from our survey, Hinduism produced
a long series of great sects from the twelfth to the sixteenth
century. From about 1550, however, the effort rapidly
weakened and died away. One of the most noteworthy facts
in the history of the religion since 1700 is the steady persistent
decay of the sects ^ all over North India and also in wide
regions farther south. Multitudes have drifted back to
undifferenced polytheism, carrying with them the merest
shreds of the old thought. Uneducated pujdrts ^ with their
numerous images and mongrel ritual strengthen the reactionary
movement. This fact makes fruitful research exceedingly
difficult over wide areas.
^ Wilson, 315 f. ; Gr is wold, Fortnan Christian College Ma^azine^ July
and Nov. 1905; Growse, M, 230 fF.; JASB. XLVIII. -171; Russell,
TCCP, 216 ff. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Khan of Qadian is an exact modem
parallel ; see Walter's Ahamadiya Movement, Calcutta, 1918,
2 See Chanda's statement, lAR. 143 ff. ' I.e. temple-ministrants.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 293
D. Smart a Literature,
§ iS"^* The orthodox twice-born fall into two groups. The
first, the Srautas, who still perform some of the ancient
Srauta sacrifices, are so few in most parts of India that they
are seldom distinguished from the much larger group, the
Smdrtas, who content themselves with the worship of the five
gods and the observance of the Sandhya, i. e. the daily prayers.
In South India and in Gujarat the word Smarta connotes,
in addition, allegiance to Sahkara s Vedanta ; but in North
India the Smarta is free in philosophy. He may follow
Sahkara ; he may accept the Nyaya system ; or he may find
satisfaction in an attempt to blend Raman uja's theism with
the strength and simplicity of Saiikara's thought The worship
of the five gods in Pahchdyatana Pujd is observed at home.^
Images, or stone and metal symbols,^ or diagrams, or earthen-
ware pots, may be used to represent the divinities. The image
or symbol of the god whom the worshipper prefers is placed in
the centre, and the other four are so set as to form a square
around the central figure.^
§ 353* Hindu temples are supposed to fall into two classes,
Smarta and Sectarian. In a Smarta temple, whether it is
dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, Ganesa, or some other
god, the ritual and liturgy ought to be Vedic, and the five gods
ought to be worshipped. In sectarian temples, the ritual and
liturgy ought to be Tantric (i.e. based on the Samhitas in
a Vishnava temple, on the Agamas in a Saiva temple, and on
* In Gujarat and in the Tamil country Smartas may be found who no
longer worship the five : they worship Siva and reverence the others.
' The more usual symbols are : Vishnu, the Salagrdma pebble ;
^iva, the Narmadesvara pebble; the Devi, a piece of metal, or the
Svarnarekhd stone found in a river in South India; Surya, a round
piece of Suryakdnta^ i.e. sun-stone, or of sphatika^ i.e. crystal; Ganesa,
the Svarnabhadra. a red slab from a stream near Arrah.
• A Smarta Brahman one day invited me to have a look at his domestic
chapel. It was a very small room. The sacred place was about two and
a half feet square, and was sunk some six inches below the main level.
in the centre of this little quadrangle stood the linga, while an image
stood in each of the corners, Vishnu, Devi, Surya, and Ganesa.
394 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
the Tantras in a Sakta temple), and the chief deity ought to
be some form of the god of the sect, even if other divinities
are also recognized. As a matter of fact, in the north, com-
paratively few pure Smarta temples are to be found ^ ; and,
while in the south and west sectarian temples are managed
with a good deal of strictness, in the north laxity is wide-
spread. Pujarls are usually men of little education, and they
very naturally tend to introduce images of popular gods in
addition to the divinity of the temple, and to follow their own
whims in matters of ritual.
In most Saiva temples in North India a Smarta Brahman
can go forward to the linga and perform his own worship in
accordance with the directions of the Grihya-sutra of his own
charana. The pujarl of the temple conducts the puja of sixteen
operations {skodasa tipachdrd) at certain fixed times, but the
Smarta Brahman's worship is quite independent. In South
India this personal worship in the temple is not permitted.
In many Saiva temples in the north, all Vorshippers, including
women, are allowed to approach the Hnga, place a few bilva
leaves upon it, and pour some Ganges water over it, while they
mutter their mantras or prayers.
Most Smartas give their preference to Siva, but others
are Vaishnava or Sakta in their leanings^ and in earlier times,
doubtless, many, like* Raja Blrbal,^ were Sauras.
§ 354. The first fifty years of the period are memorable for
the brilliant Vedic and philosophic work done by the brothers,
Madhava and Sayana. Madhava's three books, the Nydya-
^ A temple may be found here and there in which the five gods are
arranged according to rule. Thus in the Vallabhacharya temple in
Udaipur the main temple is the shrine of Krishna, while ^iva has a small
shrine in the NE. comer, Durga in the NW., Surya in the SW., and
Ganesa in the S£. In ^aiva temples in Gujarat one frequently finds, in
addition to the linga, images of the Devi and of GaneSa^ while Vishno
is represented by a tortoise, and Surya is not pictured, because he is
visible in the sky. There is usually an image of Hanuman also. Frequently
there is no separate image of the Devi : she is represented by a snake
coiled round the lower half of the linga. This is the concept of KundalinI
from Sakta Yoga : see § 232, and cf. Krishna Sastrl, SII, 185, «. i,
» V. A. Smith, Akbar, 165. * * • '
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 295
mdld'Vistara on the Mimarhsa, the Panckadasi on the Vedanta,
and the Sarvadarsanasahgraha, a review of philosophic
systems, have been dealt with above under the philosophies ;
but the style as well as the subject would inevitably make
each a work of very great interest to thinking Smartas. The
works of Sayana (died 1387), on the other hand, deal directly
with the literature on which the orthodox twice-born depend.
A series of valuable commentaries on the Rigveda^ the
Aitareya Brdhmana and Aranyakay and on the Taittirlya
Samhitd, Brdhmana^ and Aranyaka of the Black Yajurveda
were written in whole or in part by Sayana. They have been
of large service to Hindu scholars ever since, and European
scholarship owes them a great debt. The Prasthdnabheda
of Madhusudana Sarasvati, who has been already mentioned,
is interesting as showing the orthodox method of regarding
the various philosophies and sectarian systems with their
literature. The title of the work means * Varieties of the
Ways', i.e. to God.
In Bengal Raghunandana Bhattacharya {c. A.D. 1500) dealt
fully with the detailed religious duty of the Hindu in his
Ashtdvimsati Tattva^ a work greatly treasured by the
orthodox.
Appaya Dlkshita, 1551^-1624, one of the most famous
Smarta scholars of the time, produced a large number of
books on very varied subjects. Amongst his religious works
is the Sivdrkamanidtpikd, a Sanskrit commentary on Srl-
kantha's Saiva-bhdshya^ which has been much used.^ In
his later years he followed the right-hand practice of
Saktism.^
One very practical type of Smarta literature consists of
manuals, usually called prakarana-granthas^ written for the
purpose of applying Mimamsa principles to the ceremonies
enjoined in smriti books, and forming an offshoot from the
Mimamsa proper. One of the earliest and chief of these is the
Svtriti'Kaustubha, written by Ananta-deva, son of the author
^ See § 424. ' See § 270 and § 317.
296 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
of the Apadeviy They may be found in local forms in all
parts of the country.
Mukundaraj is the author of an exposition of the Vedanta
in MarathI verse called the VivekasindkUy which is much
admired. It has been referred to the reign of Jaitrapal, King
of Devagiri in the Maratha country at the end of the twelfth
century, and has therefore been called the earliest piece of
MarathI literature, but the character of the. language scarcely
bears out the claim. It does not seem to be nearly so ancient
as the language of the Jndneivari? Further, Mahlpati, who
wrote lives of many of the Marathi poets, makes him a
contemporary of Tukaram. His date is thus quite uncertain.
The Yoga-Vasishtha-Rdmdyanay discussed abdve,^ was
widely used. It is mentioned and quoted by Bharatitirtha
and Madhava in the Panchadasi \ and tht/ndna- Vasishtham,
an adaptation in Tamil verse by Alavantar Madavappattar,
appeared about A.D. 1600.
E. Vaishnava Literature,
m
a. General.
§ 355- The most prominent type of general Vaishnava
literature produqsd during the period consists of free renderings
and adaptations of the Epics and the PurSnas in the ver-
naculars. The Mahdbhdrata appeared in a Bengali dress in
the fourteenth century and often afterwards, in Tamil in the
fifteenth, in Kanarese about 1500, and in Hindi in the
nineteenth century. The Rdmdyana was produced in Bengali
in the fourteenth century and often afterwards, in Malayalim
in the fifteenth, in Kanarese in the sixteenth, in Hindi in the
seventeenth, and in Oriya at a later date. Three Vaishnava
Puranas, the Vishnu^ Vardha, and Padma, were translated
into Telugu in the fifteenth century. It would be unwise to
lay much religious stress on these versions. The bulk of
serious Vaishnava literature arose in the sub-sects.
1 See § 338. 2 See § 278. » § 270.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 297
b. Bhdgavata.
I. The Bhdgavata Community,
§356. Probably about A.D. T400, Sridhara SvamT, Mahant
of the Sankarite monasteiy, Govardhana, in Purl, wrote a
commentary on the Bhdgavata P., the Bhdgavata Bhdvdrtha
Dipikd, which is by far the most famous exposition of the
work. He was clearly an excellent scholar, and he must
have had access to a very trustworthy tradition. He begins
his commentary with the distinct statement that the great
Purana was not written by Vopadeva. The fact that this
theory was already current proves that Sridhara wrote at a
time considerably later than A, D. 1300, when Vopadeva
flourished. As the commentary was well known everywhere
by the end of the fifteenth century, Sridhara's 7?^^«// may
reasonably be placed about A.D. 1400. His interpretation of
the Purana is advaitist, since he was a follower of Sankara ;
and since the Bhdgavata itself tends to be monist, his Dlpikd
is usually regarded as most authoritative.
The Purana was translated into many languages, either
completely or partially, during the period. It appeared in
Telugu and Bengali in the fifteenth century, in Braj and
Persian in the sixteenth, in MarathI and Kanarese about
A.D. 1600, in GujaratI and Malayalim in the seventeenth
century, and in Hindi in the nineteenth.
A sectarian bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras^ which is called
the Suka Bhdshya, and which purports to be a Bhagavata
work, seems to have been written late in this period. Its
standpoint is Visishtadvaita, and the texts used to establish
the teaching of the bhashya are drawn from the Bhdgavata P.,
Upanishad texts being cited only as subsidiary evidence.
The author is called Sukachaiya, and is said to have been the
founder of the Bhagavata monastery at Talkad in Mysore,
but the work is probably pseudonymous. It is a suspicious
circumstance that a Bhagavata bhashya should be not advaita
but visishtadvaita. Further, no Sukacharya appears in the
'/
298 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
gnruparampara of Talkad, nor yet among the gurus of the
Matha of Mulubazil, the only other Bhagavata monastery in
Mysore, while the authorities of both monasteries refuse to
recognize the Suka BhdsJtya as a Bhagavata work.^
The Bhagavatas, being both Smartas and devotees of
Vishnu, occupied from the first rather an unstable position
between the orthodox and the sects, and their acceptance of
the Bhagavata P. deepened the difficulty for them. The
results are visible in their history. In the Mysore and the
Tamil south they are a scattered community possessing very
few temples of their own and only a few monasteries. They
worship in SrI-Vaishnava temples but distinguish themselves
from Sri- Vaishnavas by wearing the ancient sect-mark, a single
upright line of cream-coloured gopichandana,* and by using
the Bhagavata mantra.^ Occasionally individual Bhagavatas
pass over to the SrI-Vaishnava community. In the Kanarese
country on the western coast they still maintain themselves,
although greatly outnumbered by Madhvas, and have a
number of temples. Throughout these wide areas they still
venerate Siva as well as Vishnu, observe Vedic rites, and are
recognized as Smartas. They recognize no commentary on
the Bhagavata except Sridhara's. All the other sects
dependent on the Bhagavata P, have experienced. the same
difficulty of maintaining the Vedic position, and most are in
consequence now frankly sectarian.
1, MardthdMhaktas,
§ 357. There seems to have been an 'interval of quite a
century after Jiianesvara before another star of any magnitude
arose among the Maratha Bhagavatas. The next notable
singer is Namdeva. There is a local tradition to the effect
^ I am deeply indebted to Mr. R. Narasimhachar, Director of Archaeo-
logical Research in Mysore, who, at my request, wrote to Talkad for
information with regard to the age of the bhdshya^ and elicited the facts
stated in this sentence.
' See § 277. ' See § 161.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 299
that he and Jnanesvara met at least once, while in the Bhakta-
mala they are regarded as master and disciple. In conse-
quence of this Namdeva has usually been placed at the end
of the thirteenth, and the beginning of the fourteenth, century ;
but his Marathl is of such a character that Sir Ramakrishna
Bhandarkar is inclined to date him a century later.^ Now,
a number of his hymns occur in the Sikh Grantk, and he is
regarded as one of a few bhaktas who, coming just before
Ramananda, prepared the way for him. There seems to be
sufficient evidence to show that Ramananda flourished in the
second and third quarters of the fifteenth century ; so that
Namdeva*s jfor^^V would be somewhere about 1400 to 1430.
Mr. Balesvar Prasad, who is a most careful student of Hindi
literature, gives ^ A.D. 1423 as h\s floruit, which agrees per-
fectly with the above reasoning and with Sir Ramakrishna's
conjecture. This chronology is finally established by one
of Namdeva s own abhahgs^ * Gone are the saints *,^ which
makes it absolutely clear that Jiianei^vara and his saintly
companions lived long before him. He was a tailor, shimpu
by birth and occupation, but he spent his life propagating
bhakti in the Maratha country and in the Punjab. In his
verse the influence of Islam first appears in the Maratha
country. He and those who followed him criticized idolatry
with some severity but continued the use of idols. A large
body of Marathl hymns are attributed to him, and a con-
siderable number of Hindi hymns appear under his name in
the Granth^ the whole forming a mass of verse of very high
quality. A careful comparison of the two groups would
probably throw further light on the man and his life. He
was influential in the Punjab as well as in the Maratha
country, as is proved by his hymns in the Grant h and by
a shrine dedicated to his memory and still in use at Ghuman
in the Gurdaspur district* Another Maratha singer, Trilochan
' VS. 92. ' SBS. II. 26.
' Macnicol, PMS, 41. '* Macauliffe, VI. 39.
300 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
by name, seems to have been a contemporary of Namdcva,
but very little is known about him. Three of his Hindi
hymns appear in the Granth, but his MarathI hymns, and even
his memory, seem to be lost in his native land.
The next leader of eminence among the Maratha bhaktas is
Eknath (died 1608), who was a Brahman and lived at Paithan.
He is said to have spoken and acted in opposition to caste,
and to have suffered for his zeal. But he has been most
influential through his MarathI verse translations from the
Bhdgavata P} He left also a collection of twenty-six
abhangs called Haripdth. In philosophy he was a monist,
like Mukundaraj and Jflane^vara.
Tukaram (1608-49) was a petty shopkeeper. He is
passionately devoted to Vithoba, and his personal religious
life is reflected with great vividness in his moving lines — his
longing for God, his humility, his sense of unworthiriess, his
boundless need, his trust in God, and his appeals and prayers
for help. It is his own religious life that occupies his soul ;
as in most forms of Hinduism, there are but few traces of the
passion for winning others. His worship centres in the image
of his god. He is conscious of Vithoba s omnipresence, and
his spirituality, and yet somehow the invisible God is identified
with the adored image before which the worshipper bends.
His hymns are of a very high order, and are probably the
largest religious influence in the Maratha country. There is
scarcely a theological or philosophical system to be found in
his writings, but so far as philosophical thinking may be
traced, he tends to be a monist. Sivajl, the man who welded
the Maratha race into a strong people, rose to prominence in
the last few years of Tukaram's life, and he sent some of his
councillors to beg him to come to court, but Tukaram sent
him a few stanzas instead.
Narayana (1608-81), who later took the name of Ram
Das, probably under the influence of the Ramanandl move-
ment, was also a poet, but his verse has not laid hold of the
^ Parts of these are sung in Sahkirtan in the temple at Pandharpur.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 301
people in the same way as Tukaram*s. Yet he exerted great
personal influence over Sivajl from 1650 onwards. His poem,
Dasabodha, contains much shrewd wisdom, but it is philo-
sophical rather than religious. A small sect, the Ram-dasis,
still perpetuate his name, vyear a sect-mark, and use a secret
mantra of their own. The head-quarters are at Sajjangarh, near
Satara, where there is the Samadh of Ram Das, a temple to
Ram Chandra, and a Ram-dasI monastery. There are many
sadhus belonging to the sect.
A Brahman poet, named Sridhara, rose to great fame and
popularity during the first quarter of the eighteenth century.
His leading works present in stirring MarathI verse.the great
stories of the Rdmdyana and the Mahdbhdrata, His influence
is not directly religious, except in so far as the stories he
reproduces have a religious character.
Mahipati, who flourished later in the same century, gave
his strength to writing the lives of devotees and saints.
§ 35^' The Bhagavatas of the Maratha country to-day form
a popular bhakti movement, the literature of which, apart
from the Bhdgavata P. itself and Sridhara's commentary, is all
in the vernacular. The god is Vitthal or Vithoba ; both
these names are merely local variations of Vishnu. The chief
centres are Pandharpur, Alandi, and Dehu, but there are
numerous shrines throughout the country. In the chief
temple of Pandharpur Vitthal wears a curious sort of crown,
which the priests say is Siva's lihga\ so that the image,
standing for both gods, is truly Bhagavata. Vitthal has
several consorts installed near him, each in a separate shrine,
Rakmabai (i.e. Rukmini), Radha, Satyabhama, and Lakshmi;
but it is noteworthy that Radha takes no place in Marathi
literature. Mahadeva, Ganapati, and Surya are also installed ;
so that, taking Lakshmi as devi, the five gods are still wor-
shipped there. No Outcaste is admitted to Bhagavata temples
in Maharashtra. Namdeva's head, represented in brass, is
placed on the lowest step of the stair which leads up to the
gate of the temple ; and the shrine of an Outcaste named
3oa MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Chokamela ^ is on the opposite side of the street. Monthly
and annual pilgrimages are made to the chief sacred places.
The pilgrims are called Warkaris. Those who have made
the pilgrimage a number of times are allowed to carry a red
banner. As they march along, they shout 'Dynanoba,
Tukaram *, and sing Abhahgs. There are also hired singers
called Haridasis, who sing Marathi Abhangs and portions of
Eknath's translations from the Bhdgavata in the temple of
Pandharpur.
One of the best institutions of the movement is called
Harikathd^ a. sort of sermon in song which the leader opens
by shouting aloud several times, /ai Rama-Krishna Haru
He then sings a number of hymns and other texts in verse,
expounding each in prose. This method of mingled song and
exhortation is found in the south also, where the singer is called
Bhagavata and the musical sermon is called Kdlakshepatn,
§ 359. The bhakti movement in Gujarat remains Smarta in
general character to the present day. The two chief temples
are dedicated to Ranachor Rai, i.e. the king who left the
fight, an allusion to the occasion on which, according to the
mythology, Krishna left Mathura and came to Dwarka.
These two great shrines are at Dwarka and at Daker near
Ahmadabad. In both the ritual is still conducted in
accordance with Vedic rules.
3. The Mddhvas,
§ 360. The history of the Madhva sect during this period is
not yet known ; so that all we can do is to give some account
of the literature, so far as scholars have dealt with it.
A Madhva ascetic named Vishnu Purl, who belonged to
Tirhut and probably lived in the second half of the fourteenth
century, made a selection of the finest utterances on bhakti in
the Bhdgavata^ and arranged them according to subject in
thirteen groups. He called each of these collections a string
of gems, and named the whole BhaktiratndvaU^ or * Necklace
^ He was a Mahar. His poetry survives, and parts of it are very fine.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 303
of Bhakti Gems ', the best introduction to Bhagavata bhakti.
It was translated into Bengali by Lauriya Krishna Dasa esCrly
in the fifteenth century.
It was a later Madhva ascetic, I^vara Purl, who won
Chaitanya ^ to the faith. The new leader amply repaid the
Madhva community for this service. During his southern
tour, 1509-1 £, he stimulated Madhvas by his preaching and
his enthusiastic singing. It is probable, indeed, that it was
he that started Sahklrtan and Nagarkirtan in the sect ; for
there seems to have been little emotional singing before his
day. In any case the first great outburst of Kanarese hymn-
writing among Madhvas came shortly after his visit. The
chief singer was Puramdar Das, but therie were many others.
One of the most noted Madhva scholars, Sri Vyasa Raja, was
a contemporary of Chaitanya. He lived in the south and
wrote a number of works which are still much used.
In the eighteenth century another group of enthusiastic
bhaktas produced Kanarese hymns in praise of Krishna. The
chief writers were Timmappa Das and Madhva Das. About
the same time lived Chidananda whose Kanarese work
Haribhakti-rasdyana^ the * Sweets of Devotion to Krishna ',
is well known. The Harikathdsdra^ a clear account of
Madhva doctrine in Kanarese prose, the date of which I do
not know, is a very popular book.
There are also many Kanarese translations of Sanskrit
works. They are almost without exception Vaishnava, and
many of them are probably the work of Madhvas, but they
are rather entertaining poems than religious books. Yet
they must have helped the Madhva cause. Between 1508
and 1530 the Mahdbhdrata was rendered into Kanarese by a
number of writers, and about 1590 the Rdmdyana was trans-
lated by a poet who called himself the younger Valmiki,
Kumara Valmiki. The Bhdgavata P, was translated about
the same time, and rather later a special translation of the
tenth book, known as Krishna Ltldbhyudaya^ was written by
1 See § 364.
304 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
a Madhva named Venkaya Arya. Th^Jaimini Bhdrata by
Lakshmli^a Devapura, the date of which is 1760, is a descrip-
tion of the wanderings of the horse for Yuddhishthira's horse-
sacrifice, but the aim in view is the praise of Krishna.
Madhva ascetics are sannyasis belonging to Sankara's
Dasnamls. Madhva himself and his chief disciples belonged
to the Tirtha order, but in the later history many were Puris
or Bharatis.
4. The Vishnusvdmis.
§ 361. The history of the VishnusvamI sect is very obscure
throughout this period. Since the seventeenth century they
have been very weak ; and the absence of a strong tradition is
sufficient to account for the lack of information.
Bilvamangala, a VishnusvamI ascetic, is remembered
because of his Krishnakarndmrita^ a Sanskrit poem on
Krishna and Radha which has been much admired. There
are stories which connect him with Calicut and with the
foundation of the temple of Padmanabha at Trivandram,
Travancore. He probably lived early in the fifteenth century.
Another scholar belonging to the sect, Varadaraja by name,
wrote a fikd on the Bhdgavata P. A manuscript of it, about
i:&oo years old, lies in the library of the Sanskrit College,
Benares, but it has not been examined. The date of the
writer is unknown.
The rise of the Chaitanya and Vallabha^ sects at the
beginning of the sixteenth century bore very heavily upon the
Vishnusvamis and the Nimbarkas ; and the Vishnusvamis
were in the long run almost completely absorbed by the
Vallabhas. The sect is now extremely small. At the Kumbh
Mela at Allahabad in February, 191 8, I met some half a
dozen VishnusvamI ascetics. They wore the old sect-mark on
their foreheads, and talked freely about the sect. Two
monasteries, they averred, still survive, one at Kankraoli near
Udaipur in Rajputana and one at Kamban near Bhurtpore in
^ See § 364 and § 372.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 305
the U. P. They also say that Vishnusvami's Bhdgavata-
hhdshya still survives, and that a copy lies in each monastery.
They use two books, the Vishnu-rahasya and the Tattvatraya^
which they ascribe to Vishnusvami.
5. The Nimbdrkas,
§ 362. The history of the Nimbarkas from 1350 to 1500 is
unknown, but a reorganization of the sect appears to have
been carried out about A.D. 1500, whereby the householders
of the community were placed under one pontiff and the
sannyasis under another. The succession in each case seems
to have been faithfully kept up until to-day. The first pair
of leaders, Ke^ava Kashmiri, the head of the lay division, and
his brother-in-law, Harivyasa Muni, head of the ascetics, were
contemporaries of Chaitanya and Vallabha. Kesava Kashmiri
was a well-known scholar and commentator. His KramU'
dtpikdy a manual of the ritual, consists in the main of extracts
from the Gautamlya S. The Nimbarkas practise a very
quiet type of Sahkirtan, the hymns for which were written by
Harivyasa Muni and Sri Bhatt, who lived about the same
time. It is probable that the SahkTrtan was suggested by the
practice of the Chaitanyas.^
The two chief centres of the Nimbarka sect to-day are
Salimabad, south of Ajmere, and Brindaban. The succession
of the pontiffs in each case has been preserved,^ but not much
is known about the history. They have suffered from the
competition of the Chaitanyas and the Vallabhas, like the
Vishnusvamis, but not to the same extent. They still possess
a number of temples at Brindaban and elsewhere.
6. Rddhd'Krishna Literary Verse.
§ 363. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a great
deal of Radha-Krishna literature was written in North India.
Chandl-Das, who belonged to Jayadeva's district of Bengal and
* I owe many of these facts about the Nimbarka sect to Mr. Radha
Charana GoswamI, Honorary Magistrate, Brindaban.
* Growse, M, 147 ; Bhandarkar, VS, 62.
X
3o6 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
flourished about 138010 1420, though a ISakta/ wrote RadhS-
Krishna hymns of great power in Bengali ; and V|idyapati,
who belonged to Tirhut, and used Maithili, the dialect of that
part of India, produced in the middle of the fifteenth century
Radha-Krishna lyrics which not only pleased his own people,
but captured the heart of Bengal when re-expressed in
Bengali. It seems most likely that Umapati Dhara also,
whose Krishnaite songs in Maithili and Bengali have recently
been made known, belonged to Tirhut and was a contemporary
of Vidyapati. Narsing Mehta, a Brahman belonging to
Junagadh in Kathiawar and a famous Gujarati poet, wrote
many Radha-Krishna lyrics which are very popular, but are
also rather erotic. His flowering time may be placed at
1450-80. Mira Bai, a princess of the house of Merta in
Jodhpur, became the wife of the heir-apparent to the Mewar
throne, but he died before the assassination of his father, the
great Kumbha Rana, in 1469.2 Left a widow, and rather un-
graciously treated by her brother-in-law, who had succeeded to
the throne, she left Chittore and became a disciple of Rai Das,^
the Ramanandi, and then a devotee of Krishna. Her Radha-
Krishna lyrics in Braj are very famous but rather disappoint-
ing. There are also numerous songs in Gujarati attributed to
her, some of them containing an erotic element. The two
groups require to be critically examined together. It is not
known whether any of these poets belonged to the Vishnu-
svaml or the Nimbarka sect. As Chandi Das was a Sakta, the
others also may have written Krishnaite verse without belong-
ing to any Krishnaite community. Yet this rich literature
proves the vogue of the teaching of the two sects.
' Hence his name, Servant of ChandT, the goddess.
^ My information comes from the palace records of the Mewar &mily.
I am greatly indebted to my friend the Rev. Dr. James Shepherd of
Udaipur for ascertaining the actual facts. Much legend has gathered
round Mira Baf s name.
' She mentions him in three of her lyrics. See § 393.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 307
7. The Chaitanya Sect,
§ 364. Two new sects were founded at the opening of the
sixteenth century, the Chaitanyas and the Vallabhas. Val-
labha was probably the earlier of the two, but we take
Chaitanya first because his teaching and practice stand in
closer relation to the earlier sects.
Visvambhara Misra (1485-1533) was born in Nuddea, in
Bengal, and made himself a name as a student and teacher of
logic and grammar while still young. In A. D. 1507 he was
won to a serious life and the practice of the passionate bhakti
of the Bhagavata P, by Ii^vara Purl, a Madhva sannyasi. He
at once began to preach, and disciples and supporters gathered
round him, notably Advaitacharya, an old and revered
Vaishnava scholar, and Nityananda, who for many years had
been a Madhva. But he came also under the influence of the
Nimbarkas and the Vishnusvamis, and used with great
delight the songs of Jayadeva, Chandi Das, and Vidyapati.
He thus went beyond his Madhva teachers, and gave Radha
a very prominent place in his thought and his worship. He
spent a great deal of time singing Radha-Krishna hymns with
his followers, rousing them to devotional excitement {sahklr-
tana). Frequently he led them out through the city in
procession, dancing and singing with such fervour and con-
tagious emotion as to carry the people away in devotional
raptures {nagarklrtand). These new methods were destined
to prove very fruitful.
In 1509 he became initiated as a BharatI sannyasi by
a Madhva, Kesava BharatI, and took the name Krishna
Chaitanya. He then went to Purl in Orissa to the temple of
Krishna (here called Jagannath, Lord of the World), but for
some years he spent most of his time in long journeys in the
south and in the north. He was already believed to be
an avatara of Krishna by the people of Nuddea, and his cult
had begun. From about 1516 he lived at Purl. His adherents
increased rapidly from the time he became a sannyasi, notably
X 1
3o8 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Sarvabhauma, the greatest authority on logic of the day,
Pratapa Rudra, the King of Orissa, and Ramananda Rai,
Pratapa Rudra's Brahman minister. Rather later, he won
two scholars who were destined to become the theologians of
the faith. He gave them new names, Rupa and Sanatana, and
sent them to Brindaban to seek out the old sacred sites (then
lying desolate through Muslim fury) and produce a Sanskrit
literature for the sect. Several of his disciples became accom-
plished hymn-writers, especially Narahari Sarkar, Vasudeva
Ghosh, and Vami^ivadana. They wrote not only Radha-
Krishna hymns but songs in praise of Chaitanya, called
Gaur Chandrikd ; for his beauty and fair complexion had
brought him the name Gaur Chandra. He passed iaw:^y
in 1533-
Chaitanya was neither an organizer nor a writer. He left
the organization of the sect to Nityananda, while Rupa and
Sanatana took up the task of expressing the theology. Nor
can we be sure that he had a settled system in his mind ;
though it was probably he that decided that the philosophic
position of the sect should be the Bhedabheda of Nimbarka
rather than the Dvaita of Madhva. His chief reading
seems to have been the Bhdgavata P. with Sridhara's
commentary, the lyrics of Jayadeva, Vidyapati, and Chandl
Das, the Brahma Saikhitd and the Krishnakarnamrita}
His power over men came from the reality of his religious
experience, from the overpowering emotions which he
exhibited when gazing on a divine image or discoursing
on Krishna and his love, and from the sincerity and
contagious passion of his new modes of praise. He made
the Radha-Krishna myth the basis of his teachii^ and
worship, because, as he tells us himself, the Hindus had
nothing else that could touch the hearts of men so power-
fully.* In his hands the unpleasing tale was unqueistionably
used in masterly fashion for noble ends.
^ He brought manuscripts of the two last-mentioned works back with
him from the south. 2 gg^^ HBLL. 536.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 309
The historian of Bengali literature describes the Vaish-
nava community in Bengal as utterly stunned and crushed
by the passing of Chaitanya :
From 1533 to 1590* the Vaisnava community of Bengal lay enervated
by an overpowering feeling of forlornness. The sahklrtana parties lost
all heart, and their great music which had taken the country by surprise
and flooded it with poetry, broke in the midst of their enthusiastic per-
formances, and sounded no more on the banks of the Ganges. The
companions of Chaitanya, mute and stricken with a Sense of their great
loss, one by one departed from the world ; and the history of this period
shows no striking feature of the Vaisnava movement and no activity
of any noteworthy nature.^
But, though literature failed and music died away, the sect
lived on. Nityananda continued to organize the community
and give it rules of conduct ; and his son Virachandra carried
on the work after his father's death, receiving as many as 2,500
Buddhist monks and nuns into the new ascetic orders in one day.^
§ 365. Rupa and Sanatana and some others had been
settled in Brindaban for some years before the death of
Chaitanya, and the little community continued to grow.
The leaders, six of the companions of the Master — Rupa,
Sanatana, with their nephew Jiva, Raghunatha Das, Gopala
Bhatta, and Raghunatha Bhatta — were known as the six
Gosvamis, a word which had come to mean authoritative
religious leaders. These men preached, taught, and won
converts, but their chief task was to form the theology and
the ritual of the sect and to express both in dignified San-
skrit literature. They wrote on bhakti, philosophy, and
ritual, and produced commentaries, dramas, and lyrics, each
work having a bearing on the faith, worship, or everyday
life of the community. No Bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras
was produced at this time, but Jiva's Satsandarbha^ a philo-
sophical and theological work of large compass, more than
made up for the lack. The Hari-bhakti-vildsa on the ritual
was composed by Sanatana, but was attributed to Gopala
* Probably a slip for 157a « Sen, VLMB, 68. ^ lb. 164.
3IO MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Bhatta. They sought out all the ancient sacred spots in and
around Mathura and Brindaban, and described them in the
Mathurd = mdhdtmya^ now a portion of the Vardha P., and
in the Braj-bhakti-vildsa. It was they that established the
pilgrimage round the sacred places of Mathura and Brinda-
ban called the Ban-jdtrd. They also arranged and started
the annual festival, the Rds = lild,
§ 366. An awakening in Bengal about 1570 led to the
writing of five distinct works on Chaitanya's life within a
very few years. Two of these were in Sanskrit, the others
in Bengali. One of these was Kavikarnapura's Sanskrit
drama, the Chaitanyachandrodaya, the title suggested by the
Prabodhachandrodaya^ the scenes taken from Chaitanya's
life. Another was Vrindavana Dasa's Chaitanya Bhdgavata,
a beautiful life in Bengali verse. But much though the
Gosvamis of Brindaban admired the Chaitanya Bhdgavata^
they desiderated a fuller and completer work. Accordingly,
at their request, Krishnadasa Kaviraja, in seven years of
unremitting labour, produced the Ckaitanya-charitdmrita
(158a), which is now the standard life of the leader. Mr.
D. C. Sen calls it *the most erudite and instructive work
in Bengali about Chaitanya and his followers.' It is on the
whole historical, yet there is a considerable admixture of
legend. Many members of the sect commit the whole long
poem to memory.
§ 367. It was a fortunate circumstance for the Gosvamis
that the great Akbar mounted the Mogul throne during the
earlier years of their residence at Brindaban ; for, through his
religious tolerance, they were able not only to continue their
religious and literary work. without molestation but also to
erect a series of magnificent temples in Brindaban. They
received the large sums of money necessary for these beau-
tiful works of art from certain Rajput princes and other
wealthy men whose favour they had won.
§ 368. During the first forty years of the seventeenth
century the Chaitanya movement produced in Bengali a
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 311
group of brilliant hymn-writers. The greatest of the choir
was Govinda Das, but Jiiana Das, Balarama Das, Jadunan-
dana Das, and Raja Vira Hamvira produced work of striking
excellence also.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century Baladeva wrote
for the sect a bhashya on the Veddnta-sutraSy calling it the
Govinda-bhdshya and giving its philosophic point of view the
distinctive name achintya-bkeddbheda^ thus confessing that
the relation between God and the soul is in the last analysis
inconceivable.
§ 369. Among the Chaitanyas, as in certain other sects,
the rules of caste were relaxed in the matter of religious
privileges. Any person could become a member of the
community, share its worship, and read its books. There
were a few of the ascetics who were ready to eat with faithful
bhaktas, no matter what their caste was ; but there does not
seem to be any evidence that Chaitanya ever broke his caste.
Then, most of these breaches of caste- law soon passed away ;
and the rules of marriage and of the priestly function of
the Brahman were never disturbed. Only lineal descendants
of the personal companions of Chaitanya ^ are recognized
as Gosvamls. These rule the monasteries and control most
of the temples.
§ 370. Chaitanya was a sannyasi of the Bharati order of
Sahkara's Da^namis, and a few of his companions also
accepted sannyasa, but Nityananda and Virachandra intro-
duced the easier discipline of the modern sddhu^ calling the
ascetics Vairagis and VairaginTs, precisely as Ramananda
did. These orders were soon flooded with thousands of con-
verts from the degraded Sakta Buddhist orders, then pass-
ing through the last stage of decay in Bengal. The con-
sequence was that great impurity prevailed, despite the fact
that marriage was permitted. To this day these ascetic
orders have a very bad reputation even among members of
the sect.
^ There are a few exceptions to this rule, especially in Orissa.
313 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
§ 371. In the temples of the sect the chief images are
Krishna and Radha, but Chaitanya with Advaita and Nitya-
nanda are also installed in each temple. There are also a
number of temples dedicated to Chaitanya himself. San-
kirtana plays an important part in the worship. As in the
sects of Tamil India, this vernacular psalmody is an extra
which does not interfere with the ritual of the Sanskrit
liturgy. The Kirtanlya or head-singer and his choir sit in
the jagamohana^ the section" of the temple in front of the
main shrine, and sing to the accompaniment of cymbals and
drums ; and now and then there is dancing as well. It is
the rule to sing one or more Gaur Chandrikd as a sort of
interpretative preparation for the Radha-Kiishna hymns, a
series of which is sung on each occasion. Sanklrtan parties
are now and then held in private houses also, and are kept
up for many hours, hymns illustrative of many forms of
religious emotion being rendered.
A number of sects of rather doubtful teaching and morals
claim some connexion with Chaitanya. The Kartabhajas,
the Darbesh, and the Shains show the influence of Islam and
are more or less respectable, but the Bauls and the Kishori-
bhajas are no better than the left-hand Saktas.
8. The Vallabhdchdryas}
§ 372. Vallabha, of Vallabhacharya (1479-1531), a
Brahman belonging to the Telugu country and a contem-
porary of Chaitanya,^ was born in Benares, the son of a
member of the Vishnusvaml sect. He received a Sanskrit
education and wandered about for several years meeting
scholars in disputation. Mention is specially made of his
vanquishing Smarta scholars at the court of Krishnadeva of
Vijayanagar (1509-29). The details of his life are by no
* I have received much^ help in the understanding of this community
from Pandit Magan Lai Sastrl of Broach and Poona, who is a sincere
Vallabha and also a competent scholar.
' But he was not his father-in-law : the two men had the same name,
but that is all the basis the story has.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 313
means clear nor yet the influences that went to the making
of his sect. His relation to the VishnusvamI sect especially
requires to be cleared up. There need be no doubt, how-
ever, about the teaching of the sect ; for there is abundance
of literature ; but it waits to be studied.
Vallabha called himself an incarnation of the god Agni.
He acknowledged no human teacher but said he learat his
system direct from Krishna. Yet it seems absolutely clear
that he took over from Nimbarka the theory of Krishna as
the eternal Brahman, of Radha as his eternal spouse and of
the highest heaven where they sport.
He calls his philosophic system Suddhadvaita, i. e. pure
monism^ but his monism is certainly not so rigid as Sankara's.
It is called pure monism in contrast with the ' impure ' monism
of Sankara, whose system includes the doctrine of maya and
does not lay stress on bhakti. Vallabha acknowledges that
men of knowledge may rise to release by means of know-
ledge, but his way is the way of bhakti. Bhakti is the means,
but it is also the end ; for bhakti is higher than knowledge ;
and the true bhakta will live and sport for ever with Krishna.
According to Vallabha, bhakti is given by God : it comes by
his grace. The word for grace in the system is pushti. This
use of the word is founded on a passage in the Bhdgavata
P} I am assured that the word pushti is never used in
the literature as a name for Vallabha practice.
§ 373' The following is an outline of the theology of the
sect. Krishna, who is Brahman — reality, intelligence, joy —
alone exists. From him there go out, as sparks from fire,
the material world, souls, and the antaryamin, or indwelling,
god. In souls, which are atomic and identical with Brah-
man, the balance of the three gunas being upset, the attri-
bute of joy is concealed ; so that they are seen to possess
only reality and intelligence as attributes. Released souls
rise to Krishna's heaven, which is far above the heavens of
Vishnu, Siva, and Brahma, and there, by the favour of
^ II. X. 4. The lild in Book VI is called Poshapa.
314 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Krishna-Brahman, they attain to the pure condition of his
divine nature.
Krishna's heaven is called Vyapi-Vaikuntha, and in it is
a heavenly Vrindavana and glorious forests. From Krishna's
side springs Radha, and from the pores of the skin of Krishna
and Radha come millions of gopas and gopis and also cattle
and all the denizens of the woods. Krishna and Radha sport
eternally in the celestial Vrindavana with their devotees.
The loftiest aspiration of a Vallabha is to become a gogl
and sport with Krishna in his heaven.
The cult is called seva^ service of Krishna. There are
eight times of worship daily in each temple.^ The mantra
of the sect is ^ri Krishna iaranam mama.
. . .
§ 374' O^G extraordinary peculiarity of this sect is the
position held in it by Vallabha's son Vitthalnatha and his
descendants. No one can become a guru of the sect, or
own one of the temples of the sect, except a descendant of
Vitthalnatha in the male line. The pujarls in the temples
are paid servants of the guru to whom the temple belongs.
Along with this there goes the old Hindu doctrine that the
guru is god. Since the faithful Vallabha who is devoted
to Krishna ought to dedicate everything to Krishna, and since
the guru is Krishna, the highest teaching of the sect leads
the faithful bhakta to shower his wealth on his guru. This
is the more significant since a large percentage of the rich
business class of Western India belong to the sect. Origin-
ally, the title given to gurus was acharyas, teachers, but
when they became wealthy, they began to live as princes;
and since then they have been called Maharajas.
Each Maharaja lives in a house which is also a temple,
and in it he has a reception-room next the room in which
Krishna is worshipped. Since the guru is Kfishna, he must
be worshipped as Krishna. This worship is performed in
the reception-room, and in many cases the worship of the
guru is more elaborate and passionate than the worship of
^ Wilson, Works,!. 126 f[.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 315
the god. The ritual and the liturgy remind the worshippers
of the story of the gopis ; and, whether they be men or
women, they look forward to becoming gopis and sporting
with Krishna in Goloka. In worshipping the Maharaja,
women shower their devotion upon him as being actually
Krishna, the darling of the gopis. Hence, when the Maha-
raja is a vicious man, they are in the utmost danger. There
has been a great deal of immorality in certain cases. Accord-
ing to my informant, these abuses arose in the eighteenth
century. He assures me that there is no basis for them in
the literature.
§ 375. In certain cities societies have been formed among
Vallabhas which meet from time to time in the Rds-mandalty
or circle of holy sport. An equal number of men and women
meet and take a meal together, after which there is pro-
miscuous intercourse. The circle gets its name from Krishna's
dalliance {rds-ltld) with the gopis, but its methods are copied
from the chakra-pujd of the left-hand Saktas.
The facts about the Maharajas and the Rds-mandall were
made public in a suit for libel which was heard in Bombay in
1862. A full account of it is given in The Sect of the Mahdrdjahs.
Another very remarkable fact in the history of the Val- (
labhas is the absorption of the VishnusvamI sect. There
is no close connexion in doctrine. Vishnusvaml's philosophy
is dualistic, and he regards Radha as a woman, Krishna's
mistress at Brindaban. Vallabha's philosophy is monistic, and
he holds Radha to be the eternal spouse of Krishna. Yet for
a long time there has been a saying common in North India
to the effect that the Vishnusvamis and the Vallabhas are the
same, which is. true only in the sense that, since most Vishnu-
svamis have entered the Vallabha fold, there is now no difference
between them. The idea that the two sects are one can be
traced back to the middle of the seventeenth century, and was
probably one of many means employed by the Vallabhas in
the process of absorbing the sect. It is usually said that
Vallabhas reckon themselves as belonging to the Rudra
3i6 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Sampradaya along with the Vishnusvamis, but that is a
mistake.
§ 37^' Vallabha wrote a number of scholarly books in San-
skrit, both commentaries and original works, in exposition of
his system. There are first three fundamental works : — ^the
Veddnta-sutra'anubhdshya^ the Subodhinl^ which is a com-
mentary on the Bhdgavata P,^ and a manual of his doctrine in
verse, the Tattva'dipa-nibandha^ which is accompanied by
a gloss in prose called Prakdsa ; and then seventeen short
poems. The chief of these is the Siddhdnta Rahasya^ in
which he tells how Krishna gave him his revelation. He
left nothing in Hindi. Giridharaji and Balakrishna Bhatta
are two early leaders whose ^uddhddvaitamdrtanda and
Prameyaraindrnava are systematic Sanskrit works of con-
siderable value. Of more recent scholars Gosvami Sri Puni-
shottamajl seems to be the most noteworthy.
The Ndrada Panchardtra^ the text of which was published
in Calcutta a good many years ago, has thus far proved an
enigma, and it will remain such until it is carefully read in the
light of the history of the sects. From a superficial glance
one might conjecture that it is an old Vaishnava Samhita inter-
polated or partly re-written, first by Vishnusvamis and then
by Vallabhas.
Vallabha had four noteworthy disciples, and his son Vitthal-
natha, who succeeded him, had also four ; and all the eight
lived in the Braj district, i. e. Mathura and Brindaban and the
country round, and wrote religious poetry. They were called
the Ashta Chhdpy literally the Eight Seals, or die-stamps, pro-
ducing genuine poetic coin. They used the local dialect of
Hindi, which is called Braj.^ Hence, since their time all
vernacular Krishnaite poetry has been written in Braj. Many
other Vallabha singers followed them. By far the greatest
of these lyric poets was Sur Das, the blind poet of Agra^'who
flourished seemingly in the latter half of the sixteenth century.
He was a singer of wonderful power. Besides writing Radha-
^ Grierson, LH* 2,0^
MUSLIM INFLUENCE ' 317
Krishna songs, he reproduced in beautiful verse a large number
of episodes and passages from the Bhdgavata P,
There was also a far less admirable Vallabha literature in
Braj which laid a good deal of stress on the erotic side of the
Krishna myths. Perhaps the most prominent are Gpkul Nath's
Chaurdsl Bdrtd (1551), i.e. eighty-four tales, and the Braj
Vildsa (1743) by Braj Basi Das, which is the popular authority
for Radha s life and loves. A long list of these books is given
by Growse. Dayaram (176^-1852), one of the greatest of
GujaratI poets, was a Vallabha. Much of his verse is erotic.
9. The Bhakta-mdld.
§ 377* O"^ of the most important modern bhakti books is
the Bhakta-mdld^ or Garland of Vaishnava Saints. It is not
a sectarian work but a most catholic effort to commemorate
the greatest figures in many sects. We deal with the work
here because the author, Nabhajl, though not a Vallabha him-
self but a Ramanandi, was a disciple of the Vallabha poet
Agra Das, and was asked by him to write the Garland. Priya
Das, who wrote the gloss, was a follower of Chaitanya. In
those days some of the Vaishnava bhaktas of the north did not
make much of these sectarian distinctions. Nabhaji flourished
when Giridharaji was head of the Vallabhas and Tulsi Das was
still alive, i.e. between 1585 and 1623.^ The Bhakta-mdld is
a poem in old Western'Hindl and mainly in the Chappai metre.
It is an extremely compressed work, and, like a sutra, is scarcely
comprehensible apart from its commentary, which is a most
valuable exposition of the text, though written about a century
later. The Garland is a most useful work, though parts of
its contents are legendary. It has been imitated and adapted
in several of the vernaculars.
^ See Sir G. Grierson's articles, //?y4 5. 1909, 607 ; 1910, ^J, 269.
* For this information I am indebted to Mr. Syama 6ih§rl Miira of
Allahabad, one of the authors of MBV,
31 8 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
lo. The Rddhd'Vallabhis,
§378. Hari Vamsa, also called Hit Jl, was much indebted
to both the Madhvas and the Nimbarkas, but he founded
a new sect in Brindaban about 1585, the Radha-Vallabhis.
The chief temple of the sect still stands there, dedicated
to Radha-Vallabha, Radha's darling, Krishna. The founder
left three works, the first Rddhd-sudhd-nidhiy 170 couplets
in Sanskrit, the others, Chaurdst Pada and Sphut-pada^
both in Hindi. Many works were written by his followers.
They are Saktas, placing Radha above Krishna. A member
of the sect said to me in Brindaban, in December 1917 :
* Krishna is the servant of Radha. He may do the coolie-
work of building the world, but Radha sits as Queen. He
is at best but her Secretary of State. We win the favour
of Krishna by worshipping Radha.'
II. The Hari-Ddsts.
§ 379. Svami Hari Das, who lived at the end of the sixteenth
and the beginning of the seventeenth century, founded the
Hari Dasis, and appears to stand close to Chaitanya in his
teaching and sympathies. He left two poems in Hindi, the
Sddhdran Siddhdnt and the Raske Pada, The sect still owns
a fine temple in Brindaban.
12. The Svdmt'Ndrdyanls,
§ 380. In Gujarat there is an active reforming sect called
Svami-Narayanis who worship Krishna and Radha. The
founder, Sahajananda, or Svaml-Narayana, disgusted with the
gross immorality of the Vallabhas, began shortly after 1804 to
denounce them and to teach a purer system. He soon gathered
a large company of followers and a sect was formed. Jetalpur,
twelve miles south of Ahmadabad, is the head-quarters, but
there are temples elsewhere also. In worship they frequently
use pictures instead of images. Besides the householders, who
form the body of the sect, there are two orders of ascetics.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 319
Their philosophy is the Vi^ishtadvaita of Ramanuja, but in
their theology they follow Vallabha. They conform strictly
to Hindu law, keeping the rules of caste with great care ; they
worship the five gods and they are vegetarian in diet. They
retain the Vallabha mantra. They have produced a good deal
of Gujarat! poetry.
c. Pdnchardtra,
I. The Sri- Vaishnavas,
§ 381. Among the Sri- Vaishnavas, Vedanta-de^ika was head
of the school in Sri-rangam just after the middle of the four-
teenth century,^ and proved a prolific writer as well as a
stimulating teacher. A poet of some power as well as an
exact scholar, he wrote numerous books in both Sanskrit and
Tamil, commentaries, dogmatic manuals, controversial works,
and poems. One of his most famous works is an allegorical
drama, the Sahkalpasuryodaya^ and another is the Satadushanl^
a controversial work against Sahkara's system.
§382. He had a number of active theological opponents,
who wrote and spoke against him freely, and the outcome of
the controversy was the formation of two schools within the
community, which finally led to a serious schism. He is recog-
nized as the leader of the northern school, the Vada-galai.
Ramya-jamatri-muni (1370-1443), also called Manavala-maha-
muni, is recognized as the leader of the southern school, the
Tehgalai. He taught at SrI-rangam rather later than Vedanta-
desika. His commentaries are scholarly works and have been
much used, but his original writings are of little importance.
Since the days of the two leaders the gulf between the sub-
sects has become deeper. They differ in doctrine on a number
of minor points,^ but, unfortunately, the schism which has
resulted from the difference of opinion is much more serious
than the doctrinal differences. Each sect has seized as many
' He was a contemporary and friend of Madhava, and is quoted
in SDS., Co well, 76.
' Govindacharya,/i?-r46'. 1910, 1103; 1912,714.
320 MUSLIM IXFLUENXE
of the temples as possible and numerous law-suits have resulted
So deep is the division that it prevents intermarriage.
The northern school stands in general nearer the central
Vaishnava doctrine, and in questions concerning SrT stands
nearer the Sakta theolog>% while the southern school repre-
sents more fully the special theology of the Sri-Vaishnava sect
While both schools use both Sanskrit and Tamil, the southern
uses both the Tamil lang^uage and the hymns of the Ndldyira
Prabandham more than the northern does. In consequence
of the division, two forms of the sect-mark have been evolved,
the southern having a slight prolongation down the nose.
Widows belonging to the southern school do not undergo
tonsure. The northern pontiff has his seat at Trivallur, while
his southern rival resides at the Ahobila Monastery at Nan-
ganur, near Tinnevelley.
§ 383. Appaya Dikshita (i 552-1624), though a Smarta
Saiva, commented on several Sri- Vaishnava books, especially
the works of Vedanta-desika. The Yatindramaiadipikdy i.e.
Light on Ramanujas Opinions, a useful summary of Sri-
Vaishnava doctrine, contains a good many new ideas not
found in the Samhitas. It is by Srinivasa of the first half of
the seventeenth century. Rangaramanuja, who lived in the
eighteenth century, wrote a series of Vi^ish^advaita com-
mentaries on the Upanishads for the sect.
The bulk of the Uttara Khanda of the Padnta P. will
probably be found to be a Sri- Vaishnava document belonging
to the beginning of this period.
§ 384. The ritual in almost all Sri- Vaishnava temples is
Pdhchardtra, each temple using one particular Sarhhita, but
there are still a few which use Vaikhanasa Sarhhitas, e.g«
Conjeeveram, Sriperumbudur, and VehkateiSvara on Tirupati
hill. It seems clear that these Sarhhitas are Bhagavata in
origin and have been used by Bhagavata ministrants for
many centuries.^ Ramanuja, in his eagerness to extend
Paficharritra influence, sought to oust them and to introduce
* See § 211 and § 287.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 3^1
Pancharatra Samhitas and ritual instead ; but he did not
succeied in all places. About a dozen Vaikhanasa Samhitas
are known.^
2, Sdidnis,
§ 3^5' The Satanis are a group of people who are attached
to the SrI-Vaishnava sect, and who, though they have only
the status of Sudras, exercise certain priestly functions.
The name is said to be a corruption of the word Satta-
davaly ' non-wearers ' : they do not wear the tuft of hair
on the crown of the head nor the sacred thread. The ex-
planation of their position seems to be this, that they came
under the influence of Ramanuja, and that he allowed them
to continue certain sacerdotal usages which they had practised
from time immemorial. They are found in the Mysore and
in certain Telugu districts as well as in the Tamil country.
They act as priests in certain temples, usually those dedicated
to Hanuman. These temples bear the SrI-Vaishnava sect-
mark, and Sudras worship in them freely, while Brahmans
also visit them, but merely to do darsana^ i. e. to look at the
images, not to make offerings. When about to begin the rites
of worship, Satanis shout * Ramanuja, Ramanuja'. They are
also appointed to certain functions in the regular SrI-Vaishnava
temples, the chief of which is to bear processional images ; and
they are employed by Brahmans to brand Outcastes with the
discus and conch of Vishnu. Some Satanis of earlier times
receive honours in the temple of Srirahgam at Trichinopoly.
It is sometimes stated that they claim to be Brahmans and to
know the Vedas. These claims they probably do make ; for
they are priests, and know and use the hymns of the Ndldyira
Prabandham, which is called the Tamil Veda.
* Seshagiri Sastri, SSTM, 1893-4, P- 6. The Adyar Library possesses
a few manuscripts.
322 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
3. The Manbhaus.
§ 386. The only feature of Manbhau history during this period
which is clear is the enmity which separates the community
from the more orthodox sects. The hatred which Maratha
bhaktas have always had towards Manbhaus comes out very
distinctly in the poems of Eknath, Giridhar, and others, and
is active to-day in the prohibition which keeps them away
from Pandharpur and the other shrines. A similar rule
operates in Gujarat. Smarta Brahmans show as severe an
attitude. In 178a Madho Rao Peshwa promulgated a d^ee
to the following effect :
The Manbhaus are entirely to be condemned. They are to be
entirely outcasted. They have no connexion with the four castes
nor with the six Dar^anas. No caste should listen to their teaching.
If they do, then they are to be put out of caste.
What the real cause of this hate may have been is not yet
known. The orthodox have always charged the Manbhaus not
only with heterodoxy but also with gross crimes, especially
seduction. They are also often spoken of as if they were
Outcastes. There are to-day persistent tales to the effect
that they procure little girls to be brought up as Devadasis,
but how much truth there is in them is not clear.
The Manbhaus are found scattered about wherever Marathi
is spoken, but they are not a numerous body. They wear
dark grey robes, and beads and ear-rings of tulsl-wood.
Their own Marathi literature is gradually being made known
by Marathi scholars. Only when it has been carefully investi-
gated, and when kindly intercourse with the community has
enabled scholars to learn about their life, will it be possible to
sketch their teaching and their history, and to settle the question
of the charges so frequently brought against them.
The chief mahant has his monastery at Ridhpur, Karanjhar,
Berar, but they have a number of monasteries and shrines else-
where.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 3^3
4. The Rdmdnandls.
§ 387. We now turn to -a noteworthy development in North
India, the rise of the Ramaite movement. Several Vishnuite
bhaktas preceded Ramananda, the real leader of the move-
ment, notably Namdeva and Trilochan^ from the Maratha
country, and Sadana and Beni^ who belonged to the north.
Ramananda is one of the most important names in modern
Hinduism, yet we know very little about him with certainty.
Widely divergent dates have been suggested for his activity,
but it now seems possible to fix his floruit within narrow
limits. His royal disciple Plpa was born in A. D. 1425,^ while
another disciple, Kabir, seems to have lived from 1440 to
1 51 8.* It is clear that he was not Ramananda's latest
disciple.^ Hence we shall not be far wrong if we suppose that
Ramananda lived approximately from 1400 to 1470.^ We
may be ten years wrong either way, but scarcely more.
He was an ascetic, and seems to have spent most of his life in-
Benares.
All tradition agrees that he belonged to the sect of Ramanuia ;
and, as his followers to-day use a modification of the Srl-
Vaishnava sect-mark, we may be certain that he had at least
some connexion with it ; but no more definite statement
seems possible. The Sri-Vaishnavas have from the earliest
days acknowledged all the incarnations of Vishnu and their
consorts; and although Kfishna has always been most pro-
minentjRamahasbeen continuously revered and also Narasirhha.
It is therefore very noteworthy that Ramananda worshipped
Rama and Sita and their attendants alone: the common
practice of his disciples makes it impossible to escape from
this conclusion. To him and his followers is due the
practice of using the name Ram for the Supreme which is
' See § 357. ' Macauliffe, VI. 84; 88.
3 lb. VI. III. * See §396.
^ See a hymn by Dhana in Macauliffe, VI. 109.
^ The above date places Ramananda 350 years after Ramanuja. The
guru-parampara in two forms given by Grierson i^Ind, Ant, XXII. 266)
would agree well with this interval.
Y 2.
324 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
so common in the north. Further, the mantra is not the
Sri-Vaishnava mantra^ but Om Rdmdya namah\ the tUak,
as we have seen, is not the same ; there is a difficulty about
the name of the Sampradaya ^ ; Ramananda was not a
Tridandl ^ sannyasi, as he would have been, had he belonged
to the Sri-Vaishnava sect ; and he was not nearly so strict
in matters of food as the SrI-Vaishnavas are. How are we
to account for the divergences ? *
§ 388. We have already seen that a sect which found release
in Rama alone had been long in existence, and that the litera-
ture tends to indicate the south rather than the north as its
home. If now we suppose that this Ramaite community
lived in the Tamil country among the Srl-Vaishnavas and
that Ramananda belonged to it, the puzzle is completely
solved. Ramananda would then come to the north with his
doctrine of salvation in Rama alone, and with his Rama-
mantra.^ The very similar but not identical sect-mark is
then comprehensible, and also the different attitude to certain
caste-rules. Further, Ramananda would bring with him to
the north the Adhydtnia Rdmdyana and the Agastya-
Sufikshna Samvdda. Now, we cannot prove that he actually
carried these books with him, but it is clear that the Adhydtma
Rdmdyana was much used by his followers ; for it is one of
the chief sources of Tulsi Das's great work, and all Ramanandls
know it and use it to-day ; and the Agastya- Suttkskna Sam-
vdda is also used by Ramanandls to-day; for it is published
with Ramananda's biography included in it.^
§ 389. We therefore believe that Ramananda was an ascetic
belonging to the Ramaite sect which produced the Adhydtma
Rdmdyanay that he came to the; north about 1430 and had
so much success that he decided to stay, and took up his
* See § 292. ' See § 393. ' See § 285.
* Clearly, the story told in ERE, X. 569 does not explain the facts.
* See § 297.
* Bhandarkar, VS, 67, n. 2. I have not seen this edition of the work,
but I have received a letter from Sir Ramakrishna, saying that it is the
Agasiya-Sutikshna Samvdda,
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 325
residence in Benares. It is probable that he was accustomed
to use Ramanuja's Sri-bhdshya ; for, though it is written from
the SrI-Vaishnava standpoint, its clear and moderate doctrine
of theism made it a most attractive work to all the theistic
sects. This would explain its use by his followers to-day and
also the fact that no Ramanandl bhashya has ever appeared.
Its continued use would also help to blur the original distinction
between the two groups, while during the early decades of the .
movement the newly fledged bhaktas of the north would be
glad to link themselves with the illustrious scholar of the south.
§ 390. The greater freedom which Ramananda's movement
enjoyed in certain caste matters requires closer definition.
The master's complete neglect of all caste distinctions in the
acceptance of disciples is scarcely a novelty ; for the theistic
sects had already recognized that men of all classes could
by means of bhakti press on to spiritual religion and Release ;
but Ramananda seems to have gone a little farther. Among
his personal disciples we find not only a Sudra, a Jat, and an
Outcaste, but a Muhammadan and at least one woman. In
this extended freedom we see evidence of Muslim influence.
Certain Hindu and Musulman teachers in the fifteenth century
were ready to receive both Hindus and Musulmans as disciples,
and there was a tendency to recognize both religions as in
some sense legitimate. But there is no evidence that he
relaxed the rule that restricts priestly functions to the Brah-
man ; and he made no attempt to overturn caste as a social
institution : it was only certain of the religious restrictions
of caste that were relaxed. Those who follow Ramananda
are still strictly orthodox in all caste matters. Not until
Christian criticism was brought to bear at the beginning of
the nineteenth century was there any definite attempt made
to show that caste as a social system is cruel, inhuman, and
immoral. Much confusion has been caused by careless state-
ments to the effect that Ramananda gave up caste-distinctions
altogether. Ramananda did, however, use greater freedom in
matters of food than is the custom among SrI-Vaishnavas.
326 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
In harmony with his great care for the common people
stands the almost unbroken custom among Ramanandis and
the related sects of using the vernaculars for their literature.
It had long been customary in the chief sects to use the
vernacular as well as Sanskrit ; but the Maratha. bhaktas
and Ramananda practically gave up the use of Sanskrit
altogether. Ramananda does not seem to have been a dis-
tinguished writer : one single hymn of his survives, not among
his own followers but in the Sikh Granth}
§391. It has been frequently assumed .that Ramananda
taught the Vi^ishtadvaita system of Ramanuja. ThisMs
one of the many points with r^ard to the leader on which
no direct evidence is available; but the indirect evidence
which does exist scarcely points to that conclusion. One
of the characteristics of the whole movement that springs
from him is a constant use of advaita phrases, a clinging
to advaita concepts while holding hard by the personality of
Rama. The teaching is usually a sort of compromise be-
tween theism and strict monism.^ That certainly seems
to be true of Kabir, TulsT Das, Nanak, and others who owe
their inspiration to Ramananda. Naturally, the suspicion
arises that they may owe the common teaching to their
common master; and we remember tfie advaita theology
of the Adhydtma Rdmdyana? Yet it is quite lilfely that
he used Ramanuja's Sri-bhdshya : in these vernacular move-
ments there is very little strictness about the philosophical
standpoint of the sect.
§392. Like the Maratha bhaktas, Ramananda may have
criticized idols severely, but there is not the slightest isign that
he or his immediate followers gave up Hindu worship. It was
Kablr who initiated the practice of eschewing all idolatry as
wrong. What is to be recognized in Ramananda and all his
* But see Grierson, LH, 7.
* In the few cases in which a clearly conceived theologfy actually
appears, as in Kablr, the approach is to the Bheddhheda doctrine rather
than to the VisisHtadvcdta of Ramanuja,
' See § 297.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 327
followers is their vivid faith in the reality of the one personal
God, spiritual and invisible, whom they called Ram. Yet, in
spite of this vivid faith, no break was made with idolatry,
the Brahman priest, the Hindu pantheon, or the old mythology.
There is a compromise between a living theism and an idolatrous
and mythological polytheism. Kablr was the first to preach
a theism so real and consistent that it would tolerate neither
gods, nor idols, nor myths.
§393. About A.D. 1500, if we may hazard a conjecture, the
theory of the four Sampradayas took shape in the north, as
follows :
1. Sri Sampradaya: the Ramanandls.
2. Brahma Sampradaya : the Madhvas.
3. Rudra Sampradaya : the Vishnusvamls.
4. Sanakadi Sampradaya : the Nimbarkas.
This theory must have had its origin in the north, where these
four sects were dominant and the famous old Bhagavata
Sampradaya, the SrI-Vaishnava Sampradaya, and the Datta-
treya Sampradaya were little heard of, and before the rise of
the sects of Chaitanya and Vallabha. The names are taken to
mean the 'tradition handed down from Sri', i.e. Lakshml.
It has been generally held that the Sri Sampradaya covers
the Sri-Vaishnavas of the south, but their phrase is the
SrI-Vaishnava Sampradaya, so that it cannot be' accurately
applied to them. Similarly, it has been said that the Rudra
Sampradaya covers the Vallabhacharyas, but they altogether
repudiate the title.
Ramananda*s influence has been so widespread that the
student needs to be careful to recognize the whole. In the
most direct line of descent stands the order of ascetics who
bear his name, the Ramanandl Vairdgts, i. e. those without
passion, also called Avadhutas^ i.e. liberated ones. They are
sadhus, and live under a less rigid discipline than Sankara's
sannyasls. They have many monasteries in Benares, Ayodhya,
and elsewhere. They are very numerous: at the Kumbh
Mela at Allahabad in 191 8 they alone could be compared in
328 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
numbers with Sahkara's Dasnamls. Ramananda's influence
upon the Hindu laity of Hindustan has been very great, but it
is diffused and irregular. The ordinary Hindu householder
who worships Ram and Sita belongs to no sect or sub-sect;
yet his thought and his practice are saturated with the ideas
of Ramananda, borne down to him by the teaching of his
disciples, and above all by a disciple who came several genera-
tions later, Tulsl Das. Ramananda does not seem to have
wished to found a sect ; and certainly no community named
after him exists to-day, although two or three petty groups
founded by his followers may still be traced. Of his im-
mediate disciples who did not found sects but left at least
a few hymns two deserve mention, Dhanna and Pipa. There
seem to have been a number of organized sects formed by the
disciples of Ramananda, but most of them have passed away.
These sects of direct Ramanandl origin (i. e. which acknow-
ledge Sita as well as Ram and use images) seem to have
suffered severely from that process of sectarian decay which
we have already mentioned, probably because there is little
reason for their existence: the ordinary householder who
belongs to no sect feels Ramananda's influence quite as
strongly as the sectarian. The following are the only clear
cases :
Name, Founder, Approx, Date, Centre,
1. Rai Dasls^ RaiDas^ 1470
2. Sena Panthls Sena 1470 Rewa
3. Maluk Dasis Maluk Das ' 1630 Kara Manikpur
V
Their literature will be found in the Bibliography.
§394. But Tulsl Das (1532^-1623) is the Ramanandl who
above all others has influenced the beliefs and the feelings of
the multitudes of the Hindu people. He was a Smarta
Brahman, born in the Banda district to the south of the
Jumna. He married, and a son was born to hin) but he died,
and the mother thereafter left Tulsl Das and returned to her
^ The sect has still a large following in the P^injab.
* Mira Bal was his disciple : see § 363.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 329
parents in order to devote herself altogether to the worship of
Rama. Tulsi went to her and begged her to return but she
refused, and in turn urged him to give himself to the religious
life. Inspired by her Words and her devotion, he decided to
do as she suggested. He began the new life by becoming
a VairagI, his guru being Narahari, the sixth in preceptorial
descent from Ramananda. From Ayodhya as head-quarters,
he wandered far and wide, preaching the faith of Rama. But
a command which, as he believed, he had received from Rama
in a dream decided him to write a Ramayana in the language
of the common people. He began the work at Ayodhya in
i574i writing in the Hindi dialect used in that district, which
is called Eastern Hindi or Baiswarl ; and since that time that
dialect has been recognized as the Ramaite speech, just as
Braj ^ is recognized as the Krishnaite vehicle. At a rather
later date he left Ayodhya and settled at Asi Ghat, Benares, ^
where his room and his idols may still be seen. The great
poem, the title of which is the Rdma'ChariUmdnaSy the Lake
of Rama's deeds, was finished in Benares about 1584. He
wrote a number of other works, but the first work is his
masterpiece. Indeed it is one of the greatest books of modern
Hinduism, and has probably influenced a far larger number of
Hindus these last three centuries than any other work.
The poem is based primarily on the old Ramayana^ and, in
imitation of it, is divided into seven books with the same titles.
But the faith of Ramananda was in the main the outgrowth of
the Vaishnava life and literature of the centuries immediately
preceding his time. The mediaeval Ramayanas, above all the
Adhydtma^\i\x\, also the Yoga- VaHshtha^ the Adbhuta^^SiA the
Bhtisundi. and other works such as the Haniimdn Ndtaka.
were much read and studied by the bhaktas. Hence the main
story of Tulsl Das's work is the same as Valmlki's, but the
religion is that of the mediaeval poems, and many of the
incidents reflect them also. Tulsl Das had been a Smarta
Brahman who worshipped the five gods. At many points in
* See § 376.
330 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
his poem his ^reat reverence for Siva is clearly expressed,
indeed takes such shapes as are scarcely reconcilable with
a true theism. Thus, in one place, Rama says * Without prayer
to Siva no one can attain to the faith that I require.' The
teaching of the poem also contains many advaitic elements
which strike one as very strange beside the personality of the
god of love whom Tulsi adores. He accepts all the mytho-
logy of Hinduism and also a great many grotesque modem
stories. The Hindu system is carefully preserved, the duty of
observing caste and upholding the old institutions being
emphatically taught. Men are saved by dying in Ayodhyaor
Benares as truly as through faith in Rama. Yet, in spite of all
this, Tulsi Das's faith in Rama uplifts him and enables him to
present a very noble conception of God. His tender love for
the humblest as well as the greatest of his devotees, his
condescension in becoming incarnate for their sakes, his
sympathy and endurance of suffering for those who are devoted
to him, and his readiness to forgive are expressed with great
dignity and power. Many of Tulsfs ideas come very near
Christian thought indeed ; and there is not an impure image
or word in the book from beginning to end. The Tulsi Das
Rdmdyana is thus the vernacular Gltd-. it is a noble poem,
which teaches theism, divine incarnation and the love of God,
although it is burdened with the whole vast weight of Hindu
orthodoxy and mythology. Tulsi Das deserves the splendid
renown which his great work has brought him. He lived for
the people and loved them, and taught the very best he knew,
in the language of the people, and in poetry which reaches the
heart even in a translation.
d. Reformed,
I. Kablr and his Influence*
§395* Sects of indirect Ramanandl origin show far more
vitality than those which sprang from the master's direct
influence. All these groups arose from the teaching of Rama-
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 331
nanda's disciple Kabir, the earliest being the church of his own
followers, the Kabirpanthis. All the others are clearly the
outcome of his influence ; yet no single one of the founders
was an immediate disciple.
§ 396. Ramananda's movement provided the Hindu influence
which went to the making of Kablr (1440-15 18), but Islam also
contributed largely. It is possible, but it is not certain, that
he was brought up by Muhammadans. It is plain, however,
that the mystic Islam of the Sufis laid hold of him, whether
he ever lived the Muhammadan life or not.
Sufi mysticism has its roots in Muhammad's experience and
teaching, but the leading elements of the system came from
two external sources. The first was Neoplatonism, which
flowed into Islam through Greek philosophy. Gnosticism,
Christian teaching, and Christian asceticism. The other source
was Indian thought, but whether it reached the Sufis through
Buddhism at a very early date, or through Vedantism later, is
not yet clear. The Sufi conception of God tends to be im-
manental rather than transcendental. He works everywhere
but especially in the human heart. It is possible for the
humble soul which turns away from the things of sense to
find Him, and see Him, and know Him. Many Sufis go so
far as to identify self with God, like the thinkers of the
Vedanta ; and the state of bliss into which they hope to enter
after death, called fana^ lies very near Hindu thought. It is
not quite absorption in God, for it is accompanied by ever-
lasting life in God ; yet individuality passes away. In order to
reach illumination (gnosis) and union with God (called al-haqq^
the Real, the True, sat)^ it is necessary to walk the path
{tariqat), a way of life usually divided into stages. The spirit
of this rule of life is to some extent ascetic, and many Sufis
have been fakirs, but the great majority have been house-
holders and have earned their bread by labour. The teacher,
whether called Shaikh, Pir, or Murshid, has to be obeyed
implicitly. The details of Sufi practice are not unlike the
methods of Yoga, the purpose being to escape from one's own
332 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
individuality and, through illumination, to realize that God is
the only reality. This temper of thought goes so far in many
Sufis as to induce the idea that revelation and every organized
religion belong to unreality. Hence all religions are of equal
value, and a Sufi is no longer an orthodox Muslim.
Kabir, then, came into close touch with this system, but it
does not seem possible to tell who the teachers were whom
he met or which books he read. When the story of Islam in
India is written in detail, it may be possible to realize more
clearly the influences that went to form him. It seems probable
that he lived from A.D. 1440 to 1518. He was a weaver and
lived in Benares, and was probably brought up as a Muham-
madan. But he became a disciple of Ramananda, and Hindu
ideas poured into his mind. There can be no doubt of his
relationship to the great leader ; for he says in one of his
poems, * Ramananda illumined me '.^ He also mentions Rai
Das, the Chamar, as a contemporary. He was brought before
the Emperor Sikandar Lodi, who reigned from 1489 to 1517.
The student can thus feel here that he is on the firm ground
of history. The Emperor banished him from Benares, and he
thereafter lived a wandering life, and died at Maghar near
Gorakhpur.
§397. In the life of Kablr the two religions mingled. The
strongest elements of each laid hold of him and formed his
thought, the Sufi conviction that all ordinary religions are
but forms dictating his general attitude to the two faiths.
Hence he was persecuted from both sides, and the Emperor
banished him from the centre of Hinduism in the interests of
peace. The groundwork of his system of beliefs is Hindu ; for
he accepts transmigration and karma, and thus stands within
the circle of Indian rather than Islamic thought. A further
catalogue of Hindu ideas might be compiled — Brahman, maya,
Ilia, release, detachment, cessation from work, * He is I ', the
bheddbheda relation, &c. — but most of these coincide or almost
coincide with Sufi conceptions ; so that a number of them may
^ Tagore, One Hundred Poems of Kabir ^ 2f*»
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 333
be regarded as common ground. On the other hand, he
denounces idolatry as foolish, false, and wrong, declares divine
incarnation impossible and laughs at the forms of asceticism
as silly practices : here Islam rules. Sir George Grierson
believes that Christian influence also may be traced in his
teaching."^
He was a strict theist, calling God Ram, but recognizing no
consort, incarnation, or other divine attendants He sees God
both in nature and in man, and realizes the close relationship
between God and man, declaring that man is the same as God
and yet distinct from him. His verses refer to God in many
shining phrases which touch both the heart and the spirit.
The love of God for man finds clear and strong expression in
his lines, and he constantly speaks of the rest and peace there
is for the man who realizes that love, and the detachment from
the things of the world which it brings.
398. Kabir's poetry is in Hindi,^ and is blunt, unpolished,
sometimes even coarse. There is little attempt made to reach
literary form. He does not care whether his words are
Hindi, Persian, or barbarous, nor whether his sentences are
grammatical or not, so long as they strike home. Tagore's
beautiful renderings scarcely reflect the style of the original,
though they are not unfaithful as translations. But he was
a mystic of great penetration and a poet of considerable
power. His best utterances are probably the loftiest work in
the Hindi language ; and hundreds of his couplets have laid
hold of the common heart of Hindustan.
Large masses of poetry are ascribed to him, but until the
whole has been examined critically, it is impossible to tell how
much is genuine. About the year 1570 the Bljak^ a collection
of short poems and utterances, was compiled by one of his
followers. Some thirty years later a large number of his
hymns and sayings were included in the Sikh Granth,
1 JRAS, 1918, 156.
'^ The dialect is * old Awadhi, the language spoken in West Mirzapur,
Allahabad and Audh', Sir George Grierson, /^-4 5. 1918, 152.
334
MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Besides these, innumerable couplets and witty sa3nngs are
currently ascribed to him, and the Kabirpanthls have a con-
siderable literature, much of which they say came from the
master, but which, in the main, is clearly of later date.
§ 399' The following is a list of the chief sects which have
sprung from his teaching and influence :
Name of
Founder.
Approx.
Centre.
Sect. ^
Date.
I. Kabirpanthls
KabTr
1470
Benares
2. Sikhs
Nanak
1500
Punjab
3. Dadupanthls
Dadu
1575
Rajputana
4. Lai DasTs
Lai Das ^ •
1600
Alwar
^. Satnamis
1600
Namol, south
«^
m
of Delhi
6. Baba Lalls
Baba Lai
1625
Dehanpur, nr.
Sirhmd
7. Sadhs
Birbhan
1658
Near Delhi
8. Charan DasTs
Charan Das
1730
Delhi
9. Siva Narayanis
^iva Narayana
1734
Chandrawar,
GhaziptDT
10. Garib Dasis
GarIb Das
1740
Chudani,
Rohtak
II. Ram Sanehls
Ram Charan
1750
Shahapor,
Rajputana
A number of common features are traceable in all these
groups at the time of their foundation, but the Hinduism
which surrounds them presses heavily on them and finds
entrance at many points, so that most of the distinctive
features tend to become progressively weaker. Four charac-
teristics seem to have been common to them all :
I. God alone is worshipped and idolatry is strictly pro-
hibited; so that Hindu worship is completely abandoned;
and men of any caste may exercise religious functions.
1. The sect is open to all Hindus and to Muslims also.
3. Great stress is laid on the value of the guru.
4. The literature is in vernacular verse.
There were many other ideas which were accepted by all or
nearly all at first, but they were not so rigidly held, e.g. the
value of the repetition of the name, Ram, the denial of the
doctrine of divine incarnation, the rejection of asceticism and
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 335
begging, and the prohibition of the use of flesh as food, of
intoxicating drink and of tobacco. In a few cases infanticide
and widow-burning were prohibited. The drift towards
Hinduism, however, soon brings in the doctrine of divine
incarnation, the worship of gurus, and the formation of an order
of Sadhus, who become the divine gurus of the sect ; the rules
against flesh, wine, and tobacco are gradually relaxed ; the
sect tends to become restricted to the clean castes: Hindu
mythology, especially the story of Radha, creeps in ; and
finally idols reappear. In one case obscene rites find an
entrance at an early date.
2. The Kablrpanthts.
§ 400. Kablr formed a community, which is known as the
Kabirpanth [panth^ representing the Sufi tariqat), but how
much of its present character and organization comes from
him it scarcely seems possible to say. Since he was altogether
opposed to idolatry, he must have made fresh arrangements
for the worship of God, but how far he went we do not know.
We can hardly believe that he instituted an ascetic order. He
would be certain to give the guru a prominent place in the
sect, yet he would by no word or act lead men to believe that
he or any other teacher was an incarnation of God. Since
his day Hindu influence in various forms has found its way
into the community. There is an order of monks and also
a few nuns. The monks are the teachers and leaders of the
community, ahd they are ruled by two chief mahants or abbots.
The earliest centre seems to have been the Kablr-chaura
monastery in Benares, with which is associated the monastery
at Maghar where Kabir died. The rival mahant has his seat
at Ohattisgarh in the Central Provinces. There are many
monasteries subordinate to each. The Benares mahants trace
their descent from Surat Gopal, while the Chattisgarh mahants
look back to Dharm Das. Each sub-sect has its own litera-
ture. The worship, which consists of prayers, ritual, and
exhortation, is conducted in the monasteries. The various
336 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
acts of worship are described by the Bishop of Lucknow in his
manual.^ There is an initiation ceremony comparable with
baptism, and a rite called Jot Prasad, which has analogies
with the Lord's Supper. But a considerable place is taken by
the worship of the mahant, and in the monastery in Benares
a large picture of Kabir is used in such a way as to indicate
a return to idolatry. Although Kablr denounced divine
incarnation, the books teach that he is an incarnation of the
Supreme. Indeed the practice of the sect as a whole is
saturated in Hinduism. The sect-mark, the rosary, the mantra,
and many other details are conspicuous.
3. The Sikhs.
§ 401. Nanak (1469-1538), the founder of the religion of the
Sikhs, i. e. the disciples, was a Punjabi, born in Talwandi in
the Lahore district. His life is told in n\xvci^xo\i& JanamsakhlSy
i. e. Birth-witnesses, but there is not much that is yet known
with certainty about him. He bdonged to the movement
which produced Kabir, and was unquestionably influenced by
him, but there is no evidence that they ever met. Nanak
associated with numerous teachers, both Hindu and Muslim.*
Knowing both Persian and Hindi, besides Punjabi, he read
Sufi writings as well as the hymns of the Hindi-speaking
saints. He wandered all over North India, giving utterance
to his teaching in hymns and brief sayings in a mixture of
Punjabi and Hindi which would be understood far and wide.
His disciple Mardana went with him and played the rebeck
while Nanak sang. He gathered large numbers of followers,
and arranged for them ih^Japji^ a collection of pieces of verse,
most of them in praise of God, put together for daily prayer.
As a poet he is not comparable with Kabir ; yet his verse is
clear, simple, and pithy, an excellent vehicle for his teaching.
Two Sanskrit works on philosophy are also ascribed to him,
the Nirdkdra Mlmdmsd and the Adbhuta Gitd?
^ Westcott, Kabir, * See for example Macauliffe, VI. 356-4i4»
' Bamett, Hinduism^ 39, n. i.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 337
His religious convictions are in the main the same as
Kablr's. God is one, eternal, spiritual, and he must be
worshipped from the heart, and not with images. Hinduism
and Islam are two paths, but there is but one God. Men of
all castes and races can know and love God. The life of home
is praised rather than asceticism, and the moral side of religion
is strongly emphasized. In Nanak many fragments of the
monistic Vedanta appear along with numerous phrases which
imply the personality of God. Karma and transmigration
are retained, the conception of mdyd as a delusive, deceptive
force, and also the conviction of the importance of the guru.
Release brings union with God, or rather absorption, in which
individuality is lost. Nanak was a humble man who confessed
his own sinfulness freely, and did not dream of calling him-
self an incarnation of God. Yet he stands nearer Hinduism
than Kabir ; for the whole Hindu pantheon is retained in his
poems.
§ 40a. Nanak was followed by nine other gurus. The first,
Guru Ahgad, invented for Nanak's hymns a new alphabet,
which is known as Gurumukhi, and is now used for the
vernacular of the Punjab. He left a few utterances in
verse. Gurus Amar Das and Ram Das each wrote a con-
siderable number of hymns. Guru Arjan, with whom the
succession became hereditary, was a notable figure, a poet,
and a man of affairs. His leadership covered the last
twenty-four years of the reign of Akbar, and he took full
advantage of the opportunity which the Emperor's tolera-
tion afforded him. He built the central Sikh shrine,
known as the Golden Temple, at Amritsar. But his chief
service to the community was the formation of its sacred
book.
It is possible that the collection of Kablr's poems in the
Bljaky which took place about the time when Arjan became
guru, suggested the idea to his mind. In any case he
gathered together the hymns of Nanak and the other gurus,
and added to them his own hymns and a considerable body
z
33^ ML'SLIM IXFLUEN'CE
of poetr>' by Kabir and other singers.^ He placed the Ja/fi
first, then the So-DarUj which is used by the Sikhs for even-
song, and then two other sets of verses, which are used as
a prayer before retiring to rest. Thereafter the whole body
of hymns is divided into groups according to the Rag* i.e.
the type of music, to which they are sung.^ The Grantk
Sahib, or Xoble Book, has proved of very large value to the
Sikhs. It is their manual of instruction and theol(^[y as well
as their hymnal and prayer-book. As is evident from Aijan's
own compositions, Hindu ideas and practices were finding
their way into Sikhism in his days. The guru was already
worshipped as the Supreme Being.
While Akbar honoured Arjan, his son Jahangir was sus-
picious of the Granthy and subjected him to tortures to which
he succumbed. His death did a g^eat deal to rouse the mart}^'-
spirit in the community. His son Har Gobind, the next guru,
formed a bodyguard for himself. The ninth guru, Tq[
Bahadur, who was an old man when he accepted the head-
ship of the community, wrote a number of hymns and stanzas.
The intolerant Emperor Aurunzebe imprisoned him and
finally put him to death, but not before the guru, according to
Sikh tradition, had prophesied that Europeans would come to
India and destroy his empire. This prophecy has done a great
deal to bind the Sikhs to British rule. A poetical work of
some importance was produced by Bhai Gur Das, a con-
temporary of the fourth, fifth, and sixth gurus. It is an out-
line of the Sikh faith, and is partly translated by MacaulifTe.^
It is called Bhai Gtir Das Ki War.
§403. Gobind Singh, the son of Teg Bahadur, saw that the
Sikhs must fight the Mogul empire. He therefore formed
and trained an army which became a formidable force. In
' These hymns by others than Sikhs were altered here and there by the
editors.
' P'or the Rags see MacaulifTe, V. 333. For an exposition of the Indiaa
Rag see Fox Strangways, Music of Hindustan, _ •
' For the prosody of the hymns see Trumpp, Adi Granthy cxxviiiff.
♦ IV. 241.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 339
order to give his warriors the fullest support from religion, he
summoned them to accept from his hands the Khanda-di-
Pahul, or Baptism of the Sword, and to take a series of solemn
vows. These vows bound them to wear five articles the
names of which begin with the letter K,^ to worship God
regularly, to share a common meal, and to eschew idolatry,
pilgrimage, sati, infanticide, tobacco, apd intoxicants. Each
man adopted the surname Singh, Lion. They thus became
a new community within which Caste disappeared. It was
called the Khdlsd^ a title derived from a word meaning pure.
He refused to appoint another guru, declaring that the Granth^
to which he added his father's hymns and a single couplet of
his own, must henceforward be their guru ; and no other guru
has been appointed. Doubtless He realized from what he saw in
Sikhism and elsewhere the grave danger of guru -worship.
With him Hindu influence came into the community still
more freely than before. Before organizing the Khalsa, he
seems to have worshipped the goddess Dui-ga,^ and he certainly
had translations made by his court poets of the episode of
Chandi in the Mdrkandeya P? These and other Hindu
narratives were used to fire the valour of his men. He left
also a number of other writings, mostly in Hindi,* but some
in Persian.* After his death his works, along with certain
translations and compositions by men employed by him, were
gathered together in one volume by Bhai Mani Singh. Later
it was called the Granth of the Tenth Guru^ but it has never
been received as authoritative. It is used by the followers of
Gobind Singh for worldly ends, e. g. the promotion of valour,
while the Adi or Original Granth is used for religious ends.
Parts of it are translated by Macaulifife.
' Kes^ hair (never cut) ; Koch, drawers ; Kirpan^ dagger ; Kartha,
bangle (of iron) ; Kahga, comb.
^ According to one account he offered her- human sacrifices : Trumpp,
xi. But see Macauliffe, V, Chap. VIII. He may have been moved by
Sivaji's example.
^ Macauliffe, V. 80. See above, § 168.
* One of these is a set of prayers called \htjap Saheb.
^ Macauliffe, V. i, 22, 67, 68, 83, 201, 260 ff.
Z 2
340
MUSLIM INFLUENCE
§ 404. The transformation of the church into an army did
not prove altogether healthy ; for preaching practically ceased
among them, and Hinduism continued to press into the com-
munity. The Granth^ now recognized as the Guru, b^an to
receive divine honours. Idols reappeared in Sikh houses and
even in Sikh shrines. Many Sikhs drifted back to Hinduism.
The formation of the Khalsa necessarily divided the Sikh
community into two parts and within these certain sub-
' divisions have appeared. Yet all worship together. The
following list shows the subdivisions :
A
. SahijdhArTs.*
Name,
Approx, Date,
Founder.
I.
Sikhs, N.^nakpanthls'
1500
/
2.
Udfisis' (ascetics)
1538
Sri Chand, Nanak's son
3-
Handalls*
1570
Handal
4.
Minas*
1581
Prithi Chand, son of
Guru Ram Das
5-
Ram Ranjas*
1656
Ram Rai, son of Gam
HarRai
6.
Sewapanthis '
17CX)
B. SiNGHS.
Kanaiya, a water-camer
I.
The Khalsa
1690
Guru Gobind Sidgfa
2.
Nirmalas* (ascetics)
1690
Blr Singh
3.
Akalls • (soldier ascetics)
1690
Man SiAgh
§ 405. Public worship is conducted in the gurudvdras of the
sect. There are several of these that are buildings of some
size, but the majority are unpretentious little houses, and
a great many villages have none. The worship ought to con-
sist merely of the recitation of the regular portions of the
Granth appointed for the purpose and the singing of hymns;
^ i. e. easy-goers. '^ Bamett, Hinduism^ 38 ; ERE. II. 49f.
' MacaulifTe, I. 79f. ; Oman, Ascetics^ 194 if.
^ MacaulifTe, I. 80 f. These have a Granth and a JanamsSkki of
their own.
' MacaulifTe, I. 80.
* MacaulifTe, I. Hi. They have a temple at Dehra Dun,
^ MacaulifTe, V. 174.
* Oman, ib. 196 flf.; MacaulifTe, I. Hi ; ERE, IX. 375.
" Also called Nihangs^ MacaulifTe, 1. 52 ; Oman, ib. 198 f. ; ERE, I. 268.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 341
but the adoration of the sacred book itself is now a very
prominent part of Sikh observance, as ?iny one may see in the
Golden Temple of Amritsar. In one place at least it is
worshipped by fire-sacrifice.^ How great the fascination of
Hindu worship is may be realized from the fact that Sikh
ascetics frequently go on pilgrimage and visit Hindu temples
to gaze on the idols. The Prayer Book in common use is
called the Panjgranthu It contains (a) the Japji^ (d) the
RaAras, (c) the Klrtan Sohila^ (d) the Sukhdmaniy (e) the
Asa-ki-wdr. The first three of the five have to be recited
daily by Khalsa Sikhs.
4. The Dddupanthls,
§ 406. Dadu (1544-1603) was a Brahman who belonged to
AhmadatJad, but he spent most of his life in Rajputana, and
therje the bulk of his followers are still found. He expressed
his teaching in Bdnl^ i.e. poetic utterances. His work con-
tains 5,000 verses, arranged in 37 chapters, .which deal with
the leading religious questions. Hymns also are included.
He had fifty-two disciples, each of which set up at least one
Dddu'dvdra^ or place of worship. Apart from Dadu's Bdnl^
the sect has a large literature in Hindi, produced by two of his
sons and a number of his followers. Sundar Das the younger
is a famous Hindi poet. Nischal Das was a Vedantist, and
through his influence some members of the sect have accepted
the advaita doctrine. Only twice-born Hindus are allowed to
read the Bd7ii^ but Sudras may learn the 24 gurumantra and
the iJ4 sabda. The sect has no dealings with Outcastes.^
§407. The followers of Dadu are either householders or
celibate ascetics. Householders are called Sevaks^ i.e. ser-
vitors, while the title Dddupa7ttht is reserved for ascetics. The
latter are divided into five orders :
a. KhdlsdSy the pure. Their head-quarters are in Naraina,
* In the Sikh monastery at Conjee veram.
^ These and other particulars I learned from Dadupanthls at Allahabad
at the Kumbh Mela in Feb. 1918.
34ii MUSLIM INFLUENCE
forty miles from Jaipur, where Dadu died. Learned Khalsas
lead in worship, study, and teach.
b. Ndgds (a corruption of the Sanskrit Nagna, naked) are
an order of celibate mercenaries founded by Sundar Das, the
elder. In nine camps on the Jaipur border there are some
ijo,ooo of them, paid by the Jaipur government for the defence
of the state.
c. Uirddls, an order founded in the Punjab by Banwiri
Das. Many of them are learned men and teach ascetics.
Others are doctors.
Members of these three orders may take up any profession.
d. Viraktas^ the passionless. These must not practise any
profession nor touch money. They live a wandering life, and
devote themselves to study and literature.
e. Khakis, * ash-covered ' ascetics, who lay stress on aus-
terities.
§408. The cult, which is carried on in the Dadu-dvaras,
consists in the \vorship of a manuscript copy of Dadu's Bam
with all the operations of Hindu idolatry, such as the offering
of flowers, perfume, and food and the waving of lights. Bam
are also recited and hymns are sung. The puja is conducted
by an ascetic ; so that wherever there is an ascetic and a
manuscript of the sacred book, there may be a Dadu-dvara.
At Naraina Dadu's sandals and clothes are preserved and
receive worship.
5. The Ldl Ddsis.
§409. Lai Das (died 1648), the chief saint of Alwar, came
of the Meos, originally a predatory tribe. His teaching and
hymns are gathered in a collection called Bdni. The Lai
DasI teachers, like their master, are married men. The
worship of the sect consists of the repetition of Ram's name
and the singing of hymns to rude music.
6. The Saindtnts.
§ 410. The origin of the SatnamI sect seems to be altogether
lost ; so that the date suggested in the table (p. 334), A.D. 1600,
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 343
IS quite conjectural. The name of the sect, * True-name ',
means that they worship the one Reality {Sat, al Haqq) and
proves that they belong to the sphere of Kablr's influence.
They appear in history for the first time in 167a, at Narnol,
75 miles south-west of Delhi, where a trivial quarrel led to
a wild rising of SatnamI ascetics against the government of
Aurungzebe. It was finally crushed in a battle *fought in
March 1673, when thousands of Satnamis were killed. No
book of their own belonging to this date is extant, but a
contemporary Hindu historian, I^war Das Nagar, tells us of
their immorality and filthy habits. Clearly their original
doctrine had been seriously tainted by some outside influence.
The sect seems to have been reorganized, about A.D. 1750,
by Jagjivan Das, at Kotwa between Lucknow and Ayodhya.
Throughout its history, since this time, the members of the
sect have been mostly Outcastes^. Jagjivan was a poet and
left his teaching in Hindi verse. One of his disciples Dulan
Das, who spent his life near Rai Bareilly, was also a poet.
The sect is said to be strictly vegetarian and to abstain from
liquor. Bhattacharya avers that the sect practises the rite
known as Gayatri Kriya, the drinking of a mixture of human
excreta.
A further development occurred under GhazI Das, a
Chamar belonging, to Chattisgarh in the Central Provinces,
between i8iio and 1830. He introduced it among the
Chamars^ of the district, mainly with a view to the social
betterment of the race, and he did not acknowledge his
indebtedness to Jagjivan and his people. He taught his
people to worship the one God, formless and eternal, who is
the sole Reality. He forbade the use of flesh and also of
certain vegetables which look like flesh or blood, and the
worship of idols. These Chamar Satnamis used to compel
young wives to undergo a rite of promiscuity, but it is
gradually passing out of use. One group has reverted to
idols.
^ Outcastes who work in leather.
344 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
From the condition of the Satnamis to-day one would be
inclined to infer that from the beginning their propaganda has
had its chief success among Outcastes, and that the unclean
practices which have dogged their history are probably ancient
customs long practised in Outcaste tribes, which it has not
been possible to eradicate.
7. The Bab a Ldlts.
§411. Baba Lai, the founder of the petty sect, the Baba
Lalls, attracted the attention of Prince Dara Shikoh, the son
of Shah Jahan, in 1649, and had seven interviews with him.
The teaching he then gave was written in Persian by two
Hindus belonging to the court under the title Nadiru^n-nikat}
The sect still possesses a religious house at Lai Baba Ka Saila
near Baroda.
8. The Sddhs.
§412. The Sadhs^ are found chiefly between the two rivers
from Delhi southwards. The sect was founded in 1658 by
Birbhan. He expressed his teaching, like Kabir, in verses
and couplets which are gathered in a volume called Adi
Upadesa, the Original Teaching. One element in the book is
a set of twelve commandments, which prove the sect to have
been more distinctly Puritan than any of the others, and show
Christian influence in one point at least, viz. in the strict
injunction of monogamy. They hold a meeting at the full
moon.
9. The Charan Ddsts.
§413. The Charan Dasis are a sect founded at Delhi about
1730 by Charan Das. He left a considerable literature in
Hindi verse, and two women who were his disciples have also
left books. The basis of his system is the same as Kablr's,
the name of the eternal God, the -Word of God, the practice
of bhakti, the need of the guru, and the avoidance of idolatry ;
but the influx of Hinduism is plainly visible in the divine
* Wilson, Sects^ 347 ; ERE, II. 308. * Wilson, Secis^ 352.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 345
claims he makes for the guru and in his use of the Bhdga-
vata P. Naturally the sect has gone farther. They have
images in their temples, and recognize God in the form of
Radha and Krishna.^
• •
10. The Siva Ndrdyanis.
§414. The Siva Narayani sect* was founded by a Rajput
named Siva Narayana at Bhelsari near Ghazlpur in 1734, and
their four monasteries ' called Dhams are all in the Ghazlpur
district. People of any religion or class are admitted. Most
of the members to-day are people of the lower classes includ-
ing Outcastes, but in earlier times Brahmans and Rajputs
joined in appreciable numbers. Muhammad Shah, Emperor
of Delhi, 1719-48, became a member of the sect and gave
his royal seal to the founder. They believe in the formless
Brahman, and venerate Siva Narayana as an incarnation. The
founder left sixteen volumes of Hindi verse.
IT. The Garlb Ddszs,
§415. Garlb Das (1717-82)^ lived at Churani in the
Rohtak district. His Guru Granth Sahib contains 24,000
lines. The sect still exists, but they have only one monastery,
and have no lay followers. Only twice-born men are accepted
as Sadhus. I met a few Garlb Dasis at the Kumbh Mela at
Allahabad, in February 191 8.
12. The Ram Sanehls.
§416. The Ram Sanehls, or Lovers of Ram, are a sect
founded by Ram Charan about the middle of the eighteenth
century. Ram Charan left a body of Bdnl^ and of hymns.
The third guru, Dulha Ram, left about xo,ooo verses and
* Grierson, ERE. III. 365.
* Wilson, 6'^^/j, 358 ; Gait, Census Report^ 1901,1. 115; Grierson, /^-(4 5.
1918, 114.
8 Prasad, SBS, I. 181 ; II. 195.
346 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
4,000 couplets.^ Their prayer-houses are called Ramdvara,
and are found mostly in Rajputana ; and the worship consists
of singing and teaching. Their head-quarters are at; Shahpur,
but they are represented also at Jaipur, Udaipur, and else-
where. They have no settled following among laymen, so that
the sect has decayed, and is now merely an order of sadhus.
§417. Several other leaders founded schools and expressed
their teaching in Hindi verse, from the end of the seventeenth
to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Their names and
literature will be found in Prasad's volumes.
§418. The tragedy in the history of these sects which,
under the influence of Islam, gave up Hindu worship, is that
they have been unable to find a satisfactory substitute for it.
The mere reading of pieces of vernacular poetry and the
singing of hymns does not grip the common people. Those
sects which restrict themselves to that tend to lose their hold
on the laity, while the rest revert to Hindu guru-worship, as
the KablrpanthTs have done, or fall to bibliolatry, as' is the
case with the Sikhs and the Dadupanthls.
F. Saiva Literature.
a. General,
§419. A good deal of unsectarian Saiva literature arose
during the period, and some of it is well worthy of notice.
The Saiva movement in Bengal produced a literature of its
own in Bengali, which is described by Mr. Sen, the most
prominent book being Ramakrishna's Sivdyana, which dates
from about 1750. In Gujarat, Sivanand, who lived towards
the middle of the eighteenth century, produced lyrics which
are much used. In the Telugu country we trace the activity
of Saivas in the translation of three Saiva Puranas, the
Skanda (fifteenth century), the Kurma (c. A.D. 1500), and
the Matsya (c. A.D. 1550); and also in the famous gnomic
verses of Vemana, a prince belonging to the family of tiic
* Bha^^acharya, HCS. 447-8 ; Grierson, LH. 87;
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 347
Vema Reddis, who ruled in the Kistna, Guntur, and Nellore
districts for a century. Vemana flourished early in the
fifteenth century. In Travancore, in the seventeenth century,
the Siva P. and the Brahmdnda were done into Malayalim.
So, in Tamil, in the fifteenth century Aruna-giri-nathar
wrote the Tiru-puhal^ a series of lyrics on the god Subrah-
manya. The famous Lingayat work in Kanarese, Prabhu-
lihga-lUd, was translated into Tamil verse by Siva Praka^a
SvamI in the seventeenth century, and is used by all Saivas.
Two translations from the Sanskrit may be mentioned; the
Lihga P. was done in Tamil verse by Varatuhga Pandya,
a fifteenth-century prince of the ancient house, and the
Kurma P. by his 'brother, Ativirarama Pandya. Two col-
lections of local religious legends, the TirU'Vilaiy-ddat-
purdnanty composed by Paranjoti early in the seventeenth
century, and the Kdnchl-purdnamy by KanchI App^^ and
his teacher, Siva-jnana-yogl the Siddhantist, in the latter half
of the eighteenth century, the former dealing with Madura,
the latter with Conjeeveram, are extremely popular.
b. Pdiupata Saivas.
§ 4%o, The ancient Pa^upata sects have almost completely
disappeared. A very few AghorTs may be met : they are the
old Kapalikas ; and a few Aughars, who are Kapalikas
reformed under the influence of Kablr, may also be seen.
I. The Gorakhndthts,
§421. But there are plenty of Gorakhnathls to be found.
Their temples are Saiva temples, but Gorakhnath is wor-
shipped in them as a form of Siva, and animals are sacrificed.
In the temples of the sect in Nepal buffaloes as well as goats
are sacrificed. In the monastery at Gorakhpur, where he is
said to have died, there is a shrine to his memory in which
puja is done three times a day. It contains his charana, i.e.
his footprints in stone, but no image. Outside the shrine, to
34« MUSLIM INFLUENCE
the right, is a fence of trisul of various sizes, and behind it the
place where goats are sacrificed.^
§ 422. Kanphata Yogis have a great slit cut in the central
hollow of each ear ^ so as to admit a big circular ear-ring of
glass, wood, or hom.^ They usually wear several necklaces,
and from one of them there hangs a slender silver whistle
called Smgindd, which they blow before worship and before
meals. Amongst the necklaces will usually be seen one
consisting of small whitish stone beads, which is worn as a
badge indicating that the wearer has visited the. famous
Vamachari Sakta temple of Hihglaj in Baluchistan ; for they
arc accustomed to visit Sakta as well as Saiva temples.
Their mantra is ^iva Goraksha, Th&y worship Gorakhnath
and claim a high antiquity for him. He and the other Nathas
are believed to live in the Himalayas. They do not do very
much in the way of yoga-practice ; for modem ascetics tend
to degenerate to a common rudimentary type. Yogis whom
I met at the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad and at Benares gave
me a long list of books which they say Gorakhnathls use.
§ 423. On the Hatha-yoga and the Goraksha-Sataka^ which
are mentioned above as works attributed to Gorakhnath,
three more modern works depend, the Hatha-yoga-prcidlpika
by Svatmarama Yoglndra, the disciple of brlnath, the
Gheranda 5., and the Siva S. The first is the earliest of
• • •
the three. The Pradtpika and the Gheranda S. deal with the
same subjects, but only part of the Siva S. is devoted to
Hatha Yoga ; the rest of it is more like a treatise on Sakta
Yoga.
^ I owe this information to Mr. D. W. P. Hill of Benares, who visited
the monastery in December 191 7.
^ At the Kumbh Mela at Allahabad in February 1918 I saw a yogi
who had just been initiated. He was wearing a pair of huge ear-nngSi
and his ears were very painful.
' When asked what the meaning of the wearing of ear-rings is, they
merely say that Gorakhnath ordered it. We may note that 6iva wears
large circular ear-rings in many of his images, and Ramanuja tells us that
the ear-ring was one of the mudras, seals, worn by Kapalikas : SBE.
XLVIII. 521.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 349
c. Agamic Saivas,
I. Sanskrit School of Saiva Siddhdnta.
§ 424. In the Tamil country there are no sectarian distinc-
tions in the Saiva temples. They are sacred to Siva ; they
are open to all caste Hindus, whether Smartas, ordinary
Saivas, Siddhantists, or Lingayats, and the ministrants are all
Brahmans, except in the case of a few of the smaller temples
where Pandarams, i.e. non-Brahman Saivas, act as arckakas.
These Brahman ministrants form the chief constituency of
the Sanskrit school of Saiva Siddhanta, but numerous Smartas
who are not archakas doubtless belong to it also. The
earliest surviving document representing the school is, as we
have already seen, the essay in Madhava's Sarvadarsana-
sahgraha called the Saiva Darsana. The literature of this
school is all in Sanskrit; it recognizes the Agamas, and its
philosophical standpoint is Vi^ishtadvaita. It is thus very
clearly marked off from the Tamil school ; for the literature
of the latter is all in Tamil, its standpoint is advaita, and most
of its people are non-Brahmans.
The next noteworthy book belonging to the school is
Srikantha Sivacharya's Saiva-bhdshya on the Vedanta-sutras.
The date of the work has never been settled. Tradition runs
that he was a friend of Govinda, the guru of the great Sankara,
that, after writing the bhdshya^ he had a philosophical dispu-
tation with Sankara and defeated him ; but against this there
stands the blank silence of several centuries in all schools, and
also his manifest dependence on Ramanuja. The great
success of the Sri-bhdshya^ which vindicates the Vedantic
orthodoxy of the Vaishnava position, founded on the Naraya-
niya section of the Epic and the Vaishnava Samhitas, seems
to have roused Srikantha to do a similar service for his own
Saiva school, which recognizes the Pa^upata theology and
the Saiva Agamas. His philosophic position is the same as
Ramanuja's and he uses the same epithet for it, Visisht-
350 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
advaita^ ; at many points his reasoning follows the Srt-bhdshya
implicitly ; and I am told that sentences occur in the bhdshya
which are verbally the same as sentences in the Veddnta-sdra
attributed to Ramanuja. There need thus be no doubt that he
is later than Ramanuja. But, if the bhdshya had been in
existence when Madhava wrote the Sarvadarianasangraha,
he would have almost certainly referred to it ; so that his
silence would lead us to think of a later date. Now, the
earliest known reference to the work is in the Sahkaravijaya
attributed to Madhava, which is clearly pseudonymous, and
therefore subsequent to Madhava. Thus, if we suppose the
bhdshya was written about A. D. 1400, there would seem to be
no evidence in existence which conflicts with that date. Yet
it would be unwise to speak dogmatically until the work has
been carefully examined and the quotaitions contained in it
have been identified. The bhdshya. \s used by all Agamic
Saivas in South India.
The earliest existing commentary on the bhdshya is Appaya
Dikshita's Sivdrkamanidlpikd, dating from about A.D, 1600.
Sambhudeva's Saiva-siddhdnta-dlpikdy which belongs to the
sixteenth century, is the most noteworthy dogmatic work
after the bhdshya \ but Nilakantha's Kriydsdra^ which con-
tains a synopsis of the bhdshya^ is also much used. There is an
account of the school and its theology in the Vayavlya S. of
the ^iva P,
2. Tamil Saivas.
§425. There is, strictly speaking, no organized sect con-
nected with the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta; A sort of incomplete
sectarian organization has grown up around the literature and
the monasteries. These are schools of theology and literature
in which monks are trained and priests learn a little. The
Mahants keep touch also with their initiated disciples all over
the country. A majority of the monasteries are under non-
Brahmans, the remainder under Brahmans. Indeed com-
^ On II. i. 22.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 351
paratively few Brahman families are connected with the
movement, the mass of Tamil Brahmans being either Smartas
or Vaishnavas. Siddhantists recognize the Vedas, but in
practice they usually restrict themselves to the Upanishads
and the Saiva portions of the Yajurveda^ especially the eleven
Rudra Hymns.^ The Gltd they do not use at all ^ : it is too
distinctively Vaishnava. The books on which their religious
life is really nourished are their own Tamil literature : the
Agamas remain in the background, and even the Saiva
Bhdshya is read by only a few. No serious theological
change is visible in the theology during this period, but
a number of valuable pieces of literature appeared. Kannu-
daiya Vallalar is the author of Olivil-Odukkam, a theological
work in Tamil verse belonging to the fifteenth century, while
KumaraguruparasvamT wrote many short religious poems in
the seventeenth. The most noted scholar of the time, Siva-
jnana-yogl, who died in A. D. 1785, wrote two famous Tamil
commentaries, one lengthy, the Drdvida Bhdshya^ the other
short, the Laghu Tlkd^ on the foundation scripture of the
Siddhanta, Siva-jndna-bodhay and also produced the KdnchU
purdnam in collaboration with his disciple, as has been already
stated.^ But unquestionably the greatest Saiva production of
the period is Tayumanavar's volume of lyrics, which are
equally famous for religious feeling, beauty of language, and
sweetness of rhythm. He also belongs to the eighteenth
century.
The philosophic standpoint of the school is called Sivad-
vaita,* and they are thus distinguished from the Sanskrit
Siddhanta school ; but no attempt will be made here to
describe the theology, for it differs in important details from
the other schools, and thus requires to be expounded with
fuller knowledge than the writer possesses.
* Taittiriya Samhitd^ IV. v.
2 Pope's dictum, Tiruvasagam^ xxxvi, is erroneous.
' See § 419. * Others give Bhedabheda as the standpoint.
^53. MUSLIM INFLUENCE
3. Sittars.
§ 426. There was a Saiva school in Tamil-land, which held
a monotheistic and Puritan creed, and roundly condemned
idolatry. They are usually called the Chittars, or Sittars, Lc
Siddhas^ Sages, but their history is not known. They seem
to have been most active in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
Ahappey and Pambatti are believed to have been their
chief singers. Many of the hymns of the Sittars are collected
in the Siva-vakyam^ Siva's utterance, but orthodox l)mcs
have also crept in beside the pure material. On the other
hand, a number of beautiful lyrics which show the Sittar
spirit are mistakenly attributed to Pattinattu Pillai, the tenth-
century poet.^ Tattuva Rayar, who wrote in the seventeenth
century a work against idolatry, Adahgan-Murai^ was
probably another leader. This movement may be an out-
come of Muslim influence, like similar anti-idol movements in
the north, or Muslim and Christian teaching may have both
had something to do with it.
4. Kashmir ^aivds.
§ 427. Kashmir Saivism still exists, but it shows very little
vitality. Yet scholarly pandits are not wanting : their work,
clothed in English, may be seen in Chatterji's Kashmir
Shaivisnu Sir George Grierson refers to ' a wise old woman
known as Lai Ded ' who lived in Kashmir in the fourteenth
century, * whose apophthegms in short verses are still freely
quoted in the happy valley ', and he quotes and translates one
of her stanzas. Mr. Chatterji names only a single writer
belonging to this period, Sivopadhyaya of the eighteenth
century, who wrote a commentary on the Vijhdna Bhairava
Tantra.
^ See § 305.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 353
5. Vtra Saivas.
§4:28. It is not yet possible to sketch Lihgayat history
during those centuries. All that can be done is to give a brief
account of the literature produced by the sect in Kanarese.
Puranas bulk most largely, the Basava^ translated in 1369
from the Telugu by Bhlnia Chandra Kavi, the Padmardja^
the story of Kereya Padmarasa, written about 1385 by
^Padmanahka, the Mahdbasava by Siiigi Raja of rather
uncertain date, and the Channa Basava^ which tells of Basava's
nephew, written by Virupaksha Pandit in 1585. The Pra-
bhulihgalild^ which is not called a Purana, is at once a legendary
history and a book of dogmatics. It is founded on the life of
Allama Prabhu, an associate of Basava. It was written by
Charnarasa about 1460, and was translated into Tamil at the
end of the seventeenth century.^ About the middle of the
seventeenth century lived SivagunayogI, whose Viveka-
chintdmani^ is a sort of cyclopaedia of Saiva lore in champu^
i.e. in mingled prose and verse. The Kriydsdra is a Saiva
manual in Sanskrit by Nllakantha,^ much used by Lihgayats.
Chapters I-IV are a synopsis in Karikas of the Saiva-bkdskya.
The Srikara Bhdshya on the Veddnta-sutras is attributed
to Sripati Panditaradhya * of the twelfth century ; but it seems
to have been unknown until quite recently ; so that its date is
very doubtful. - Its standpoint is called Sakti-visishtadvaita.
G. Sdkta Literature.
a. The Left-hand School*
§429. Our account of the large Sakta literature produced
during this period must be very fragmentary, partly because
^our knowledge of the chronology is still slight, but even more
because we know so little about the sub-sects.
^ See § 419. 2 Rice, ysTZ. 68. » § 424. * § SH-
A a
354 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
§430. Bengal, including Assam, seems to have produced
far more Sakta literature than any other part of India during
these centuries. The most famous Sakta temple in Bengal is
Kamakhya near Gauhati in the upper basin of the Brahma-
putra in Assam. It is noticeable that the ancient name for
Assam is Kamariipa. The temple of Kalighat close by
Calcutta comes next in importance. Human sacrifices were
offered in these shrines until British authority put them down.
The Kdlikd Purdna or Tantra^ which has long been well
kno^n, is clearly a manual of the Saktism of Bengal, and
probably comes from a date near the beginning of the period.
The Blood Chapter gives directions for the offering of animal
and human sacrifices to Chandika. The list of sacrificial
animals is most formidable: birds, tortoises, alligators, fish,
nine species of wild animals, buffaloes, bulls, he-goats, ichneu-
mons, wild boars, rhinoceros, antelopes, iguanas, reindeer,
lions, tigers. Human sacrifice is of more avail than an3rthing
else. Blood drawn from one's own body may also be offered.
The Yoginl T. probably belongs to the sixteenth century;
for it refers to Vishnusinha, a king who ruled in Kooch Behar
shortly after A.D. 1500. It is in two parts, thie first dealing
with all the chief Tantrik subjects, the second being really
a Mahatmya of Kamakhya. It is one of the foulest Tantras.
The Visvasdra T, probably belongs to the same time ; for it
has a reference to the Bengali Vaishnava leader, Chaitanya
(1485-1533). In it is found the Durgdiatandma Stotra. It
contains a list of 64 Tantras, which appears also in the Agama
Tattva-vildsa} A large number of the works mentioned are
clearly modern, and several were produced in Bengal, but their
dates are not known.
§431. There is another group of Tantras. produced m
Bengal the dates of which are known, but they are much later.
The Mahdnirvdna, though a Left-hand Tantra, is a noble
work, but a mystery hangs over its origin. It is not mentioned
in early literature, and the earliest attempt at a commentary
* Dutta, MT,^ p. V.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 355
that exists is the set of notes by Hariharananda Bharati, Ram
Mohan Ray*s pandit. Ram Mohan was born in 177a and died
in 1833 5 so that the Bharati lived at the very earh'est at the
close of the eighteenth century. Some scholars believe that
he was the author of the book, others doubt the conjecture.
In any case the book is probably a product of the eighteenth
century. It is in two parts but only the first has been
published and translated. The translator writes :
This Tantra is, further, one which is well known and esteemed,
though perhaps more highly so amongst that portion of the Indian
public which favours 'reformed* Hinduism than amongst some Tan-
trikas, to whom, as I have been told, certain of its provisions appear
to display unnecessary timidity. The former admire it on account of
its noble exposition of the worship of the Supreme Brahman, and in the
belief that certain of its passages absolutely discountenance the orthodox
ritual. Nothing can be more mistaken than such a. belief
This any one will discover who reads the
text , The section of Tantrikas to
whom I have referred are, I believe, also in error. For the design
of this Tantra appears to be, whilst conserving commonly-recognized
Tantrik principles, to secure that, as has sometimes proved to be the
case, they are not abused. ParwatJ says (Chap. I, verse 67) : * I fear,
O Lord ! that even that which Thou hast ordained for the good of men
will, through them, turn out for evil *.^
The first and second chapters are introductory ; the third is
a discourse on the worship of the Supreme Brahman. The
remaining chapters form a very full manual not only of
worship and its accompaniments but also of conduct, and of
family and funeral rites ; and chakra-puja and the five Ms are
not omitted. The Tantrasdrc^. is a compilation which dates
from 1 81 a. There is very little of the Left-hand element
about it, and it contains several fine hymns. A number of
yantras, chakras, and mandalas are reproduced in its pages.
It is much used in Bengal. It would be most interesting to
discover what the influence was which led to the production
in Bengal, where Tantrik literature had been so impure, of
» Avalon,r6^Z. Xlff.
S56 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
two Left-hand works of such a character as the Makdnirvdna
T. and the Tantrasdra are.
The Prdnatoshini was written by RamatoshinI Sarma in
iSai^ and the Mahdsiddhasdra seems to be still later. It
contains a catalogue of 192 names,^ distributed in three lists
of 64 each, and labelled Vishnukrdnta^ Rathakrdnta^ and
Aivakrdntd] but the list seems to be quite recent; for it
contains the Mahdnirvdna T., and of all the 19a names only
10 correspond with names in the Vdmakeivara list. *
A large number of odes to the goddess are scattered through
this group of Tantras.
§432. From the end of the fourteenth century, when the
great poet Chandi Das wrote his hymns, a stream of Sakta
poetry in Bengali flowed almost without a break. Numerous
translations of the episode of Chandi in the Mdrkandeya P.
were made from the fifteenth century downward. An artistic
Bengali epic on the same subject was written by Mukundarama
in 1589. Manasa, one of the local forms of the goddess; was
much worshipped, and many poems in her honour were
produced. Finally, in the eighteenth century, two of the
greatest of Bengali poets, Rama Prasad Sen and Bharata
Chnndra Rai, exerted their powers to the utmost in praising
the goddess in song.
Sakta feeling also expressed itself in the vernacular in
Gujarat, in translations of the Chandi episode by Bhalan,
about A.D. 1500, and by Ranchhodji Diwan at the banning
of the nineteenth century, and in numberless popular songs
called Garbas, which are sung by companies of men or of
women. Vallabha Bhatt, who flourished about 1700, is the
most notable of the writers of the Garbas. In the Maratha
•
country the Gondhal is a dance perforitied in honour of Amba
BhawanI, in connexion with which songs are sung in her
honour. The worship of the goddess took a great hold of tiic
country in the seventeenth century, when under Sivaji patriotic
* Catalogus Catalogorutn^ s.v. Pranatoshint Z*.
« Avalon, rr. I. iiff.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 357
feeling stirred the people to the depths. The Mdrkandeya P.
was translated into Telugu in the sixteenth century ; and the
Devi Mdhdtmya from the Mdrkandeya exists in Malayalim,
but its date is unknown.
The Mantramahodadhi is a manual of ritual prepared by
Mahldhara in 1589, and is much used by both Saktas and
Saivas throughout Hindustan and the west.
Sakta sannyasis may be met here and there. A small
group with whoni I talked one morning at Vindhyachal
belonged to the Pur! order of Sahkara*s Da^namls.^ So Tota
Purl, the guru of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa of Dakshine^-
vara, Ramakrishna himself, and also Vivekananda and the
other svamis of the mission, were Sakta sannyasis and belonged
to the Purl order.^
b. The Right-hand School,
§433. In the ordinary Right-hand worship by Smartas in
their houses the goddess is represented by a yantra or by
a garlanded pot, and the ritual includes the throwing of
Kunkuma powder on the yantra and the presentation of
vegetarian offerings. But the most, important part of the
service is the liturgy, which consists in the recitation of the
Chandl episode, preceded and followed by other sacred texts,
the Kilaka^ the Kavacha, the Argaldstotra, &c., drawn from
the Mdrkandeya and Vardha Puranas. In other circles in
South India, Lalita, a beautiful goddess of fdazzling appear-
ance, takes the place of Chandl.^ The ritual is the same, but
the texts recited are the Lalitopdkhydna, in which the goddess
kills Bhandasura and other demons, with the Lalitdtriiatt and
the Lalitdsahasrandma^ litanies of three hundred and a thou-
sand names, all three drawn from the Brahmdnda P. The
temple-cult is practically the same as the domestic worship,
* See above, § 198.
^ P. 191 of my Modern Religious Movements in India requires to be
corrected in this sense.
3 H. Krishna Sastri, SII. 220.
358 MUSLIM INFLUENCE
only the goddess may be represented by an image with a large
metal yantra on the ground at the feet of the image.
§434. The man who wishes to practice the famous Right-
hand Srlvidyd and through it to seek release, has to receive
initiation {dlkshd) ^ from his guru, to take severe vows and live
a life of strictest purity, both physical and mental, for a period
of several days. Starting from the ordinary cult, which we
have just described, he passes on to the meditations and
practices prescribed in the Srlvidya.^
§435. Appaya Dikshita (\$^%-\6%^ belonged to a Smarta
Saiva family of the Tanjore district. Three stages may be
traced in his religious life: he cultivated first the Karma
Mimamsa, then Sahkara's Vedanta, and lastly the Srividya.
When he was a Mimamsist, he did not merely study the
system, but received initiation (whence his title Dikshita) as
a Vedic priest and performed many sacrifices. But he ended
his life as a devotee of the goddess, and individual members
of his family to this day follow his example. They are then
called Vira Saivas, stalwart Saivas, who dare to undertake the
very trying discipline of the Srividya.
§ 436. Three later scholars may be mentioned who belonged
to the same part of India and are famous for their devotion to
the goddess. They form a short gumparampard of three—
Nrisimhanandanatha, Bhaskaranandanatha, and Umanaada-
natha. These names proclaim them initiates of the school
to which Lakshmidhara Vidyanatha belonged. The second,
who is usually called Bhaskararaya, is the greatest of the
tjfree. He was court pandit at Tanjore in the early decades
of the eighteenth century. He is the author of a learned
exposition of the Sakta system in Arya mejre, called Variva-
sydrahasya, and of an elaborate commentary on the same. He
also wrote commentaries on the following Sakta works, the
Vdmakesvara T,, the Tripurd, KatilUy and Bhdvand Upani-
shads, and the Lalitdsahasrandma^ and on the Mahd and
Jabdla Upanishads and the Uvara Gltd. His disciple,
^ Avalon, TGL. Ixxiii. ' See § 318.
J
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 359
*
Umanandanatha, wrote a practical commentary on the
Parasurama-Bhargava-sutra,
c. The Bhakti School.
§437- We have seen in our previous chapter that the
Agastya-sutra and the Devi Bhdgavata sprang from a special
school of Sakt^s who sought release by bhakti, deep devo-
^ tional feeling, centred on the Devl.^ Bhatta Nllakantha is
the author of a well-known commentary, the Tilaka, on the
Devi Bhdgavata^ in which he urges the claim, already referred
to, that this is the real Purana, and that the Vaishnava
Bhdgavata is by Vopadeva. He calls himself a disciple of
Sridhara, the author of the chief commentary on the Vaish-
nava work. As Sridhara flgurished about A.D. 1400,^
Nllakantha may belong to the fifteenth or the sixteenth
century.
ii. JAINISM.
The spontaneous energy of the Jain community visibly
declines during this period, if literature is a trustworthy index.
A. Svetdmbara Literature.
§438. In the fifteenth century, at Ahmadabad, where
Muhammadan influence was very powerful, a few Svetambaras
became convinced of the folly of image-worship and noted
that there is no mention of idols in the earliest Jain books.
They therefore formed a new sect called the Lohka or
Lumpaka, which gave up the temple-cult altogether. A
stricter body called the Sthanakavasis arose in the seventeenth
century and absorbed the Lohkas.^ They are a fine people
but have produced no noteworthy literature.
§439. Svetambara literature is in the main commentaries,
but a few dogmatic works were written, and several authors
produced charitas^ prabandhas, and tales. The following are
Ihe most interesting men.
* See § 319. '^ See § 356. ' Mrs. Stevenson, HJ, 19; 88.
36o MUSLIM INFLUENCE
Merutunga (b) who was born in 1347, wrote commentaries
and abstracts of older works, but dared also to compose
a kavya named Meghadutay thus challenging comparison with
the great Kalidasa. Jiianasagara (born 1349) and Soma-
sundara (born 1384) were commentators, the former dealii^
with canonical works, the latter writing simple expositions of
popular religious works for children. Gunaratna {c* 1400)
• wrote a useful comment on Haribhadra's Shaddarianasamuch-
chhaya. Jinamandana {c. 1436), Jinaklrti (1437), Subhaiila
(1464) produced tales and biographies, while Ratnaiekhara
(1401-61) wrote commentaries. Dharmasagara, of the middle
of the sixteenth century, wrote an interesting polemic, the
Kupakskakauiikdditydy against ten Jain heretical sects.
Samayasundara, one of whose books is dated A.D. 1630,
published several anthologies of sacred verse, a catechism, and
a commentary, called Kalpalatd^ on the Kalpa-sutra.
A popular literature in Gujarat! accompanied the learned
literature in Sainskrit, but it has not been described in detail
The chief type is the Rasas ^ interesting tales told to" enforce
religion and morals.^
B. Digambara Literature.
§ 440. The Digambara literature of this period consists in
the main of commentaries, Puranas, tales, and biog^raphies.
The two most prominent authors are Sakalaklrti and l^ubha-
chandra.
Sakalaklrti, whosQ Jloruit is A.D. 1464, wrote many books.
His chief work, the Tattvdrthasdradlpikd^ which, despite its
title, seems to be an independent work, deals with the seven
categories of the Digambara system, but gives also the list of
the books of the original Digambara canon. His other works
are a catechism, a Purana, and biographies. Srutasagara wrote,
at the end of the fifteenth century, a commentary on Kunda-
kunda's Shatprdbhrita^ the Tattvdrthadlpikd on the Digam-
bara categories, and the Jinasamhitd on Digambara worship.
* Jhaveri, -AfG^Z. 18, 139, 167.
MUSLIM INFLUENCE 361
Nemidatta, who flourished about 1530, wrote biographies of
Tirthakaras and saints, a volume of tales, and a manual of
rules for the conduct of the laity, the Srdvakdchdra. Subha-
chandra, who lived in the sixteenth century, was a voluminous
writer. He has six works on worship, biographies of three
of the Tirthakaras, several volumes of tales, and a Purana, the
Pdfidava P. Ratnachandra (r. i6a6) wrote lives of two of
the Tirthakaras, while Banarasi Dasa, who lived under Shah.
Jahan (i 61^8-58) wrote in Hindi verse on dogmatic subjects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. HISTORIES OF THE LITERATURES
A. Sanskrit : Macdonell ; Wintemitz ; Bloomfield, ERE, viii. lo6 ff.
Also Miiller, ASL, \ Weber, HIL, \ Schroeder, ILK.
B. PALI : Wintemitz, II. i ; Macdonell, ERE, viii. 85 ff.
C. PrAkrit : No history has yet been written ; but see Pischel, GPS,
10 ; Konow and Lanman, RdjasekharcC s Karptira-manjari, 191, Harvard,
1 901 ; Gudrinot.
D. Vernacular Literatures :' See the Introductions in Grierson's
Linguistic Survey of India ^ Calcutta, 1904, &c. ; also Art., Grierson,
BSOSL, 19 18, p. 47.
E. Assamese : I A, xxv. 57.
F. Bengali : Sen, HBLL, ; VSP. ; VLMB. ; CC.
G. GujarAtI : Jhaveri, MGL. Also, Tripathi, The Classical Poets of
Gujarat^ Bombay, 1894; ?iZo\X^Gujaratl Poetry ^^yxrKX^ '9ii; Dahyabhai
P. Derasari, ^hdthina Sdhityanuh Digdarsanam^ Ahmadabad, 191 1.
H. Hindi : Misra Bandhu Vinode ; Prasad, SBS. ; Grierson, Lff*;
Lyall, EB. xiii. 483 ff. ; Tripathi, Kavita Kaumudt, Allahabad, 1918.
I. Kanarese: Rice, KL, Earlier sketches : British Museum Catalogiu
0/ Kannada Books y London, 1910; Kittel, NdgavamicCs Canarese Prosody^
Mangalore, 1875; ^* Narasimhachar, Karndtaka Kavi Charite^ vol. i,
Mysore City, 1907.
J. Malayalim : Sketch : Travancore State Manual ^ ii, Ch. x, Trivan-
drum, 1906.
K. MarAthi : Brief sketch in Acworth, BM.
L. Oriya : Brief sketch, Chatterjij/^^"^., vol. 66, i. 317 ; vol. 67, i. 332-
Cf. I A. i. 79. Hunter, Orissa^ ii. 199 ff., London, 1872.
M. Singalese : lA . xii. 53. Geiger, LitercUur und Sprache derSinghor
leseny Grundriss, 1900.
N. Tamil : Brief sketches : BMCTB, ; Rost, in EB. xxvi. 390 flf. Also
Aiyangar, TS.\ Pumalingam Pillai, A Primer of Tamil Idteraturey
Madras, 1904 (uncritical).
O. Telugu : Viresalingam Pantulu, Andra Kavula Charitra, Raja-
mundry; British Museum Cat, of Telugu Booksy London, 191 2. Early
sketch : Brown, Madras Journal of Literature and Sciencey x.
n. HINDU LITERATURE,
i. The Vedas.
A. The RiGVEDA : Gen. Intro.: Macdonell, 40-170; Wintemitz, i.47-iQ3i
Macdonell'and Keith, K^^/}V://i^^;r, London, 1 912. Beligion: Oldenbtfgt
RV,\ also in French, Henry, Paris, 1903; Bloomfield, RV.\ Ka^) TiW
BIBLIOGRAPHY 363
Rigveda^ Boston, 1898. Mythology: Macdonell, Vedic Mythology^
Grundriss, 1897 ; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie^ Breslau, 1891-1902 ;
Oldenberg, RV. 39-301 ; Keith, Indian Mythology^ Boston, 191 7. Philo-
sophy : Deussen, ^Sp. I. i. 72-158; Bloomfield, R V, Ritual: Oldenberg,
/?F. 302; Hillebrandt, RL, 1-17. Translations: ETr. Griffith, RV.;
GTr. (verse) Grassmann, Leipzig, 1876-7; GTr. (prose) Ludwig, Prag,
1876-88. Partial translations: SBE, xxxii, xlvi ; GTr. hymns illus-
trating the religion, Hillebrandt, Gottingen, 1913. Deussen, GTr. of
philosophic hymns, AGP. I. i. 93-158; Ninth book: FTr. Regnaud,
Paris, 1900.
B. TheSamaveda : Gen. Intro. : Macdonell; Wintemitz; Oldenberg,
ZDMG. xxxviii. 439, 469 ; Caland, Die Jaiminlya S.yfnit einer Einleiiung
iiber die Sdmavedaliteratur^ Breslau, 1907. Translations : Benfey, Text
and GTr., Leipzig, 1848 ; Griffith, ETr., Benares, 1893. Bitual : Hille-
brandt, RL. 99-105.
C. The Yajurveda : Gen. Intro.: Macdonell; Winternitz; Keith, 719.
Heligion : Oldenberg, RV,\ Schroeder, /ZA^. vii-xii. Bitual: Hille-
brandt, RL. 97-166. Translations : White Yajus : Griffith, Benares,
1899. Taittirtya S. : Keith, TS,
D. The Atharvaveda : Gen. Intro. : Bloomfield, A V, ; Whitney and
Lanman, A V, ; Macdonell ; Winternitz. Religion^ Magio, and Bitual :
Oldenberg, R V. ; Hillebrandt, RL,^ 167-86. Philosophy : Deussen, AGP,
I. i. 209-336. Translations : ETr. Whitney and Lanman, A V. ; ETr.
Griffith, Benares, 1897. Partial Trs. : Eng. : Bloomfield, SBE, xlii.
French : Henry, Paris, 189 1-6; German: Wcher, IndiscAe Studien ; Grill,
Stuttgart, 1888 ; Deussen, AGP. h i. 210-83 (philosophic hymns).
E. The Brahmanas : Gen. Intro.: Miiller, ASL.^is-4SS » Macdonell,
202-18; Winternitz, i. 171-96. Culture and Philosophy: Deussen,
AGP, I. i. 159-336. Analyses of Aitareya^ Kdushitaki^ Pahchavimsa^
Shadvimsa] Chhdndogya^ Taittirtya, Satapatha, Deussen, SUV. Trans-
lations, &c.: Aitareya\ Text,Intro., ETr., Haug, Bombay, 1863. Aitareya
and KausMtaki : ETr. Keith, vol. xxv, HOS,, in the press. Shadvimsa :
Text and GTr. Klemm, Giitersloh, 1894. Adbhuta : Text and GTr. Weber,
Zwei vedische Texte iiber Ofnina und Portenta, Berlin, 1859. Talavakdra :
Text and ETr. Oertel, J A OS. xiv, xv, xvi, xviii. Arsheya, Devatddhydyhy
Vamsa, Samhitopanishad^ Brahmanas : Texts with Intro. Bumell, Manga-
lore, 1873; 1876; 1877. Sdmavtdhdna\ Intro., Text, Comm., Bumell,
London, 1873; GTr. Konow, Halle, 1893. Satapatha: Intro, and ETr.
Eggeling, SBE, xii, xxvi, xli, xliii, xliv. Gopatha : Intro, and Analysis,
Bloomfield. A V.
F. The Aranyakas : Gen. Intro. : Macdonell, 34 ; Wintemitz, i. 199 ;
202, n. I. Deussen, PI/. 2 ff,; SV, 8j Oldenberg, £>ie Hymnen des
Rigveda, Berlin, 1888, 291 ; Keith, A A. 15, 257^ Translations, &o. :
Aitareya : Text, Intro., ETr., Comm., Keith, A A. Sdhkhdyana ; ETr.
Keith, London, 1908; see 2X^0 JR. AS, 1908, 363. Taittirtya^ Analysis,
Deussen, SUV, 213. Brihat = Satapatha Br, xiv. I-3. ETr., Eggeling,
SBE, xliv. 441-510.
G. The Upanishads : Gen. Intro. : Deussen, PU. ; SUV.; Olden-
berg, Z 6^. Brief Introductions : Macdonell, 218-43 ; Wintemitz, i. 196-
364 BIBLIOGRAPHY
228 ; liarnett, Brahnia-Knowledge^ London, 191 1 ; Jacob, Concordance to
the Princifial Upanishads^ Bombay, 1891.
IjiBt of ohief Upanishads : RiK : 1. Aitareya ; 2. Kaushttaki,
SAman: 3. Chhandogya\ 4. Kena, BLACK ^Yajus: 6. Taittirtya\
6. Mahandrdyana ; 7. Kdthaka or Katha ; 8. Svetdsvatara ; 9. Maiird-
yana. White Yajus : 10. Brihaddranyaka \ IL Isd. Atharvan:
12". Mundaka\ 13. Prasna\ 14. Mdndukya\ 16. Garbha\\Q. Prdnag-
nihotra \ 17. Pitida ; 18. Atma ; 19. S'arva-Upanishai'Sdrai 20. Gdruda;
21. Brahmavidyd^ 2!^. Kshurikd ', 23, CM/tM- 24. NUdabindu\ 25.
Brahmabindu; 26. Amritabindu \ 27. Dhydnahindu\ 28. Tejobindu\
29. Yogasikhd; 30. Yogatattva; SI. JIamsa ; S2. BraAma ; 3S. Sann-
ydsa; 3^,Aruneya; 3&. Kanthasruti or Kathasruti; 36. ParamaAofhsa;
37. Jdbd/a ; 38.' Asnuna ; 89. Atharuasiras A. ; 40. Atkarvasikhd'y 4L
Nilartidra ;_ 42. Kdldgnirudra ; 43. Kaivalya ; 44. Mahd ; 46. Warfl-
j'^jjw ; 46. Atmabodha \ 47. Nrisimhapilrvatdpantya\ 48. Nfisimhottaror
tdpaniya\^9,Rdmapuniatdpamya\ JSO.Rdmottaratdpantya\ 61, JCauia;
62. Amritandda ; 63. Brihajjdbdla ; 64. Maitreya \ 66. Subdld ; 66. il/a«-
/r?'>&rt ; 67. Nirdlamba ; 68. Sukarahasya ; 69. Vajrasilcht ; 60. Ndrada-
parivrdjaka ; 61. Trisikhibrdhmana ; 62. 5/75 ; 63. Yegachuddmani\
64. Nirvdna ; 66. Mandalabrdhmana ; 66. Dakshinanmrti \ 67. Sarabha ;
68. Skanda\ 69. Tripddvibhutimahdndrdyana\ 70. Advayatdraka]
71. Rdmarahasya\ 72. Vdsudeva\, 73. Mudgala\ 74. Sdndilya\
76. Paingala-y IQ: Bhikshuka; 11. Sdrtraka; 78. Turiyd/lfdvadAiUa;
79. Parafnahamsaparivrdjaka ; 80. Akshamdlikd ; 81. Avyakta ; 82.
Ekdkshara ; 83. Annapurnd ; 84. ^S'l^rj/rt ; 86. Akshi ; 86. AdhyStma ;
87. Kundikd\ SS.Sdvitrf; 89. Pdsupafabrahma ; 90. Parabrahma)
91. Avadhata', 92. Tripurdtdpaniya\ 93. Z?^f; 94. Tripur&\ 06.
Katharudra\ W. Bhdvand\ 91 . Rudrahridaya -, 9S. VogakuifdaU;
99. B/iasmajdbdIa; 100. Rudrdkshajdbdla) lOl. Ganapati-^ 102.'Dar-
Sana ; 103. Tdrasdra ; 104. Mahdvdkya ; 106. Panchabrahma ; 106.
Gopdlatdpantya\ 101. Krishna \ 108. Vajnava/kya; W9. Vardki;
110. Sdtydyana ; 111. Hayagriva \ 112. Dattdtreya ; 113. KcUisanUarasta]
114c.ydbdli; 115. SaubhdgycUakshmt\ 116. Sarasvatirahasya\ lll.Bai-
vricha\ 118. Muktikd ; 119. Gopfchandana; 120. Varadaldpanlya;
121. Varadottaratdpaniya ; 122. Shatchakra ; 123. Atharvasiras B.
Groups : Nos. 1-14 are the Classical Upanishads. Nos. 1-50 with the
addition of nine pieces from Dara Shikoh's Persian collection dnd the
PranavaU. (a portion of the Gopatha B.), form Deussen's sixty Upanishads
(2nd ed.) : 6^6^^^. For the lists of Narayana, Dara Shikoh, and Cole-
brooke, see Deussen, 56^^. 535-7. The 108 Upanishads given in the list
in the Muktikd U- correspond to the above list, with the omission of Nos.
6, 17, 25, 34, 35, 38, 41, 51, 119-23, th€ Chfdikd, No. 23 above, being the
Mantrikdy No. 32 in the Muktikd list, and the pairs of Upanishads, Nos.
47-8 and 49-50 above, being each taken as one, Nos. 27 and 55 in the
Muktikd list. Bare text of the Upanishads of this list : W. L. Sastri
Pansikar, Bombay, 191 7.
Commentaries :
8th o. Gaudapada, Nos. 14, 47, 48.
Early 9th. I^ankara, Nos. i, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 39, 40* 47*
Deussen, ^'F. 37.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 365
13th c. Madhva, Nos. i, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. ETrs. of all,
except Nos. i and 5, SBH. i, iii, xiv.
c. 1360. Sankarananda, Nos. 2, 4, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 17-19, 21-34, 36, 37,
39-41, 43, 45, 49, 50, 106.
Narayana, Nos. 4-8, 12-20, 23, 25, 27-32, 34, 36, 37, 40-50, 72, 106,
107, 1 19-21, and others : Deussen, SUV, 538 ; Jacob, EAU., Preface.
16th c. Ramatlrtha, No. 9.
Rangaramanuja, a ^ri-Vaishnava : Rajagopalacharya, VRL 34.
18th o. Bhaskararaya„ Nos. 4, 7, 12,* 37, 44, 94, 96,- 122.
Translations and Introductions : ETrs. of 1-5 and 7-13, Max Miiller,
SEE, I. XV ; ETrs. of 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, with Madhva's comms.,
S. C. Vasu, SBH, I. in. xiv; ETrs. of the five Upanishads included in
Atharvasiras B,^ No. 123, Kennedy, HM, 346, 442, 443, 491, 493 ; ETrs.
of 72, 119, Jacob, lA,^ 1887, 84, 89. Introductions and GTrs. of 1-50, '
Deussen, SUV, ; ETrs. of selections, Barnett, Brahma- Knowledge^
London, 191 1. Introductions to 20, 38, 42, 44, 45, 46, 68, 72, 107, 119,
120, Jacob, iE'.^ 6^.
ii. The Kalpa Sutras, &;c.
Gen. Intro. : Macdonell, 244-64 ; Winternitz, i. 232-40 : also Miiller,
ASL, ch. i.
A. Srauta SOtras : Chief Texts : (Rik) 1. Sahkhayana ; 2. Asva-
I ay ana, (Saman) 3. Masaka\ 4. Ldtydyana\ 5. Drdhydyana\ 6. Jaiminu
(W.-Yajus) 7. Kdtydyana, (B. Yajus) 8. Apastamba ; 9. Hiranyakesin ;
10. Baudhdyana ; 11. Bhdradvdja ; 12. Mdnava, (Atharvan) 13. Vai-
tana. Ritual: Hillebrandt, /?Z,. 18-36; 97-166. Translations: GTrs.
Vaitdna^ Garbe, Strassburg, 1878; Caland, Amsterdam, 1910.
B. Grihya SOtras : Chief Texts : (Rik) 1. Sdhkhdyana ; 2. Sam-
bavya ; 3. Asvaldyana, (Saman) 4. Gobhija ; 5. Khddira ; 6. Jaiminu
(W. Yajus) 7. Pdraskara, (B. Yajus) 8. Apastamba ; 9. Hiranyakesin ;
10. Baudhdyana ; 11. Bhdradvdja ; 12. Mdnava ; 13. Vaikhdnasa,
(Atharvan) 14. Kausika, Bitual: Hillebrandt, RL, 18-36; 41-97.
Translations: ETrs. of i, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Oldenberg, ^iff-fi". xxix, xxx.
GTrs. of I (Oldenberg, Indische Studieny xv), of 3 and 7 (Stenzler,
Leipzig, 1864, 1876), of 6 (Caland, Amsterdam, 1906), of 4 (Knauer,
Dorpat, 1886). On 13, see Bloch, t/eber das Grihya und DharmasUtra
der Vaikhdnasa^ Leipzig, 1896. On 14, see Bloomfield, y^ 05. xiv, i'.
C. Dharma SOtras : Intro. : Jolly, RS, 1-13 ; Buhler,^ intros. to
SBE, ii and xiv. Vedic school manuals : (B. Yajus) 1. Apastamba ;
2. Hiranyakesin ; 3. Baudhdyana, Manuals for all : 4. Gautama ;
6. Vdsishtha. Translations: ETrs. of i, 3, 4, 5, Biihler, SBE, ii and
xiv. For later Dharma-sutras, see Law Literature.
D. iSuLVA SOtras: Intro.: Thibaut, /^5^. xliv, Calcutta, 1875;-
1. Baudhdyana^ Sulva Sutra, Text and ETr. Thibaut, Pandit y ix;
2. Apastamba Suhui Siitra, Text and GTr., Biirk, ZDMG, Iv and Ivi.
E. The Vedangas : Intro. : Miiller, ASL, 108 ff. ; Macdonell,
264-75.
366 BIBLIOGRAPHY
F". Texts on Magic: Gfen. Intro.: Bloomfield, AV. 15-17, 57;
Rose, ERE. viii. 292 ; Henry, La Magie dans Plnde antique^ Paris,
1909 ; Caland, Altindisches Zauherritual^ Amsterdam, 19C0 ; Wintemitx,
i. 147, 239. 1. Rig7'idhana\ Macdonell, 251, 274. For the Samor
vidhana^ Abdhuta^ and Gopatha Hrahmanas, see above, under the
Brahmanas.
iii. Law Literature.
Gen. Intro. : Jolly, RS,
A. Dharma-SOtras : see above, p. 365.
B. Law in the MahabhArata: Jolly, RS, 29-31; Biibler, SBE*
XXV, Intro. ; Hopkins, GE, .17-23 ; Wintemitz, i. 364.
C. Secondary Dharma-SOtras : Intro. : Jolly, RS. 7-13. Chief
texts: \, Vishnusmriti : Intro, and ETr. Jolly, 6'iff£'.vii; 2. Vatkkdnasa:
Jolly, RS. 9-10; Bloch, Ueber das Grihya und Dhamtasutra der Vai-
khdnasay Leipzig, 1896; 3. Hdri/a, Jolly, RS, 8-9.
D. The DharmasIstras : Intro.: Jolly, ^5. 13-29; Buhler, 5*^^.
XXX, Intro. Chief texts : 1. Mdnava Dharmasdstra^ or lawbook of Manu:
Intro. Jolly, AW. 13-19; Intro, and ETr. Biibler, SBE, xxv; 2. Y&fior
valkya: Intro. Jolly, RS. 19-21; Max Miiller, ASL, 301 n. Text and
GTr. Stenzler, Berlin, 1849 ; 3. Ndrada : Intro. Jolly, RS. 21-3 ; Intro,
and ETr. Jolly, SEE, xxxiii ; 4. Brihaspatiy Jolly, RS. 21 ; Intro, and
ETr. Jolly, SBE, xxxiii. There is a large number of later Dharma-
sastras : Intro. Jolly, RS, 23-9 ; text and ETrs. M. N. Dutt,* Calcutta,
1908.
iv. The Epics.
A. Mahabharata : Gen. Intro. : Holtzmann, MBH. ; Hopkins,
GE,\ ERE,y\\\, 325; Macdonell, 281 ; Wintemitz, i. 259. Ana]^^:
Monier Williams, Indian Epic Poetry^ London, 1863 ; ' Jacobi, Das
MaMdAdra^ Bonn, igo^. Religion: Hopkins, /?/. chs. xiv-xv. Philo-
sophy: Hopkins, GE. ch. iii; Deussen, AGP, I. iii. 8 ; Die Sdmkhya
Philosophic nach dem M^ahdbhdrata, Dahlmann, 1902.
Vemac. versions: Kanarese (Jain), loth c. ; Telugu, nth to 13th c;
Tamil, 15th c. ; Kanarese, i6th c. ; Bengali, 17th c. (earlier versions from
14th c.) ; Malayalim, 17th c. ; Hindi, 19th c.
Translations: ETrs. P. C. Roy, Calcutta, 1884-96; Dutt, Calcutta,
1895. Partial FTrs. Fauche, Paris, 1863-70; Foucaux, Paris, 1862.
Partial ITr. Pavolini, 1902. GTr. of the four philosophical sectioiis,
Deussen und Strauss, Leipzig, 1906 ; ETr. of the Gttd, the SemcUsujiUiyih
and the AnugUd, Telang, SBE, viii.
Bhagavadgitd \ Qen. Intro.: Barnett, Bhagavadgitd^ London, 1905;
Garbe, ERE, ii. 535 ; Wintemitz, i. 365 ff. ; Farquhar, Gitd and Gosfeh
Madras, 1906; Jacob, Concordance to the Principal Upanishads afid
Bhagavadgitd, Bombay, 1891. Origin and date: Garbe, Die Bhaga-
vadgitd, Leipzig, 1905; Hopkins, /^^. v., 1905, 384; YMih^ JRAS„
^9}Si 548- Translations: ETrs. Davies, London, 1894; Tel^g, ^^^^
viii; Barnett, London, 1905; Annie Besant, Madras | GTrs. Gatbe,
Leipzig, 1905 ; Deussen, Der Gesang des Heiligen, Leipzig, 191 1.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 367
B. Ram A VAN A : Gen. Intro. : Macdonell, ERE, x. 574 ; Jacobi, R. ;
Macdonell, 302 ; Winternitz, i. 423 ; Hopkins, GE, ch, ii. AnalyslB :
Moniet Williams, Indian Epic Poetry y London, 1863; Jacobi, R, 126.
Vemaa versions : Kanarese (Jain), loth c. ; Tamil, iioo; Telugu, 1300;
Bengali, 14th c; Malayalim, 15th c; Hindi, 1584; Kanarese, 1590. Trs. :
ETr. (prose), Dutt, Calcutta, 1892; ETr. (verse), Griffith, Benares, 1870-4 ;
FTr. Fauche, Paris, 1858; ITr. Gorresio, Parigi, 1843-70.
V. Philosophical Ijiterature.
Gen. Intro.: Deussen, AGP, Also Colebrooke, Essays \ Hall;
Miiller, SS,\ Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient Indian Chicago, 1897.
A. ' KARMA MiMAMSA.
Intro. : Jha, PSPM, ; Garbe, ERE, viii. 648, Also Colebrooke, Essays,
i. 295 ; Miiller, SS, v; Madhava, SDS, xii : Cowell, 178.
4th or 6th. Jaimini ; 1. Purva-mimdmsd-sutras i ETr. Jha, SB//, x.
c. 500. Sahara Svamin; 2. Bhdshya^ on No. i.
7th o. Prabhakara; 3. Brihatiy on No. 2 : full intro., Jha, PSPM.
o. 700. ^alikanatha, disciple of Prabhakara ; 4. J^ijuvimald^ on i :
Jha, PSPM, I, 2, 18; Hall, 195; 5. Prakaranapahcnikd, a sketch of
Prabhakara's system: Jha, PSPM, 1,4, 18. Text, Benares, 1904.
Early 8th. Kumarila ; 6. Mimdmsd-sloka-vdrttika, on No. 2 : ETr.
in B/, ; 7. Tantra-vdrttika, on No. 2 : ETr. in BI. ; 8. fui>tikd, on No. 2.
o. 860. Mandanamisra ; 9. Vidhiviveka : Woods,* Yoga, xxii, 357 ; Jha,
PSPM,Z, " ^
o. 850. Vachaspatimisra ; 10. Nydyakanikd^ on 9: Woods, Yoga,
xxi ; 357. Nos. 9 and 10 published together, Benares, 1907.
c. 130O. Parthasarathimisra ; 11. Sdstradipikd^ on i: Hall, 173;
Colebrooke, ME, i. 299 ; 12. Tantra-ratna, on i ; 13. Nydya^rcUndkara,
on 6 : Jha, PSPM. 18 ; 14. Nydya-ratna-mdld^ on 7 : Hall, 172.
o. 1350.„ Vedanta-desika ; 16. Sesvara-mimdmsd, on i ; Rajagopala-
chariar, VRI. 107.
o. 1380. Madhava ; 16. Jaiminiyanydyamdldvistara, on i : Hall, 186 ;
17. Sarvadarsanasahgraha^ ch. xii : Cowell, 178. ^
c. 1400. Somes vara ; 18. Nydya-sudhd, or Rdnaka, on 7 : Hall, 170 ;
Jha, PSPM, 8.
c. 1525. Vallabhacharya ; 19. Jaifniniya'SUtra-bhashya : Hall, 208.
c. 1643. Ramakrishna; 20. Siddhdnta-chandrikd, on II : Hall, 173.
c. 1580. Narayana; 21. Sdstradipikd-vydkhyd, on ii : Hall, 178.
c. 1600. Bhatta Dinakara; 22. Bhdtta-dinakara, on ii: Hall, 175.
Early 17th. Appaya Dikshita ; 23. Vidhi-rasdyana : Hall, 1,94.
Early 17th. Apadeva; 24. Mlmdmsd-nydya-prakdsa or Apadevti
Hall, 185. ETr., Jha, Benares.
Early 17th. Laugakshi Bhaskara ; 26. Arthasahgraha : Macdonell,
451. Text, Intro., and ETr., Thibaut, Benares, 1882.
d. 1665. Khandadeva ; 26. Bhdtta Dlpikd^ on i : Hall, 1*79.
Mid 17th. Aiiantadeva ; 27. Smriti Kaustubha : Hall, 185.
Sucharitamisra ; 28. /Casikdy on 6: Jha, PSPM. 18.
B. VEDANTA.
Intro. : Colebrooke, Essays, i. 325 ; Miill^, SS. ch. iv ; Deussen, SV. ;
Thibaut, Intro. SBE, xxxiv.
368 IMBLIOGRAPHY
4th or 5th. Hadarilyaiia ; 1. Vciidnta-siitras : Intro, and ETr. Thibaut,
SBE, xxxiv, xxxviii.
Mid 8th. (jaudapada ; 2. Mdndukya-Kdrikd^ on Mdndukya U,\
Intro, and GTr. Deussen, SUV, 5*73. ETr. Dvivedl, Bombay, 1909;
ETr. SBH. i.
788-c. 850. Sankara ; 3. Veddntii'Siitra-bhashya^ on Na I : Intra
and ETr. Thibaut, SBE, xxxiv, xxxviii. GTr. Deussen, Leipzig, 1887.
Life, works, and system, Deussen, SV, Sketch of system, Deussen,
Outline of the Veddnta^ London, 1907.
o. 850. Mandanami^ra, or Suresvaracharya ; 4. Naishkarmya'SiddM^
a polemic against the Mliiiaiiisa: Hail, 159.
o. 850. Padmapada ; 5. Panchapddikd^ on No. 3.: Hall, ZZ» ETr.
Venis, Benares.
c. 850. Vachaspatimi^ra ; 6. Bhdmatl^ on No. 3 : Woods, Yoga^ xxi-
xxiii ; Hall, 87.
c. 900. Bhaskarficharya ; 7. Brahma-sutra-bhdshyay on No. I : Colc-
brooke, Essays, i. 334.
c. 1050. Yadava Prakasa ; 8. Yddava-bhdshya^ on No. I.
c. 1250. Amalananda ; 9. Veddnta-kaJpataru^ on No. 6 : Colebrooke,
Essays, i. 333; Hall, 87'; Jacob, /^-<46\, 1916, 853.
c. 1350. Bharatitlrtha and Madhava ; 10. Pahchadasix Wintemitz and
Keith, Bodleian Catal, ii. 190. ETr. Nanda Lai Dhole, Calcutta, 1899.
15th c. Advaitananda ; 11. Brahviavidydbharana^ on No. 3 : Cole-
brooke, Essays, i. 333 ; Hall, 89.
End 15th. Sadananda; 12. Veddnta-sdra i Intro., ETr., and notes,
Jacob, Manual of Hindu Pantheism, London, 1891 ; Intro, and GTr.,
Deussen, AGP. I. iii. 615. See Keith, SS. 102.
Bhavadevami^ra ; 13. Veddnta-sutra'Vydkhyd'Chandrik&y on I :
Colebrooke, Essays, i. 334.
Before 1550. Madhusudana Sarasvati; 14. Veddnia-ka^alatikd:
Hall, 132; 15. Advaita-siddhi, a refutation of the Nyaya: ETr., Jha,
Allahabad.
Mid 16th. Vijnana Bhikshu ; 16. Vijhdndmrita^ on I.
End 16th. Ramananda Sarasvati ; 17. Brahmdmrita-varshif&i on
No. I : Colebrooke, Essays, i. 334 ; Hall, 89, 93.
c. 1600. Appaya Dikshita ; 18. Veddnta-kafpataru-parimaldy on No. 9 :
Hall, 88 ; 19. Siddhdnta-lesa : criticism of other forms of the Vedanta, &c:
Hall, 153 : ETr. Venis, Benares.
Praka^an^nda ; 20. Veddnta-siddhdnta-muktdvali ; Macdonell,
451 :.^Hall, 99. ETr. Venis, Benares, 1890.
C. SANKHYA.
Gen. Intro. : Keith, SS. . Earlier works, Colebrooke, Essays^ i. 327 ;
Muller, 55. ch. vi; Goxha, Die Sdhkhya Philosophic, Leipzig, 1894;
Garbc, S Y. ; Dahlmann, Die Sdmkhya Philosophic nach dem MahoM-
rata, Berlin, 1902.
Ist or 2nd. Varshaganya ; 1. Shashtitofitrai Keith, SS. ch. v;
Schrader, ZDMG. 1914, idi ; IP AS, no.*
c. 300. Isvara Krishna ; 2. Sdhkli^a Kdrikd \ Keith, 55. ch. viii. ETr.
Davies, London, 1881/ ETr. Colebrooke, London, 1837; ETr. SiAba,
SBH. xi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 369
7tli o. Gaudapada ; 3. Bhdshya, on 2 : Hall, .5. ETr. Wilson, London,
1837.
o. 850. Vachaspatimisra ; 4. Sdhkhya'tattva-kaumudt^ on 2 : Woods,
Yoga^ xxi ; Keith, 56*. 70. ETr. J ha, Bombay, 1896.
Early 14th. Bharati Yati ; 5. Tattva-kaumudl-vydkhyd^ on 4.
o. 1380. Madhava ; 6. Sarvadarsanasahgraha^ xiv : ETr. Cowell, 221 ;
Keith, SS. 91.
7. Tattva-samdsa ; Keith, SS. 89-91. ETr. Sinha, SBH, xi.
8. Sdhkhya-pravachana-sutra', Keith, SS, 91. ETr. Hall, BL^
1865 ; ETr. Ballantyne, London, 1885 ; ETr. Sinha, SBH, xi.
o. 1500. Aniruddha ; 9. Sdhkhya-sutra-vritti or Aniruddha-vriiti, on
8 : Keith, SS, 92. ETr. Garbe, BL 189^; ETr. Sinha, SBH, xi*.
Mid 16th. Vijnana Bhikshu; 10. Sdhkhya'pravachana-bhdshya^ on
No. 8 ; GTr. Garbe, Leipzig, 1889 : ETr. Sinha, SBH, xi ; 11. Sdhkhya-
sdra, Intro, and Text, Hall, BI, 1862.
Iiate 16th. Bhava Ganesa Dikshita ; 12, Sdnkhya-sdra, a summary of
Sankhya doctrine ; 13. Tattva-ydthdrtha-dipana^ on 7 : Hall, 4,
Iiate 17th. Mahadeva Vedantin ; 14. Sdnkhya-vritti-sdra^ on 9 : ETr.
in Garbe, Aniruddha* s Commentary ^ Calcutta, 1892; ETr. Sinha,
SB//. XI.
Early 18th. Nagesa Bhatta ; 15. Laghti'Sdhkhya-sutra-vritti, on 10.
D. YOGA
Gen. Intro. : Garbe, 6* F. ; Miiller, SS, ch. vii.
Early 4th. Patanjali ; 1. Yogas fitr as : Intro, and ETr. Woods, Yoga,
ETr., with No. 4, Mitra, BI, 1883 ; ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH, iv.
7th or 8th. Veda-vyasa; 2. Yoga-bhdshya, on No. i : Intro, and ETr.
Woods, Yoga ; ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH. iv.
c. 850. Vachaspatimisra ; 3. Tattva-vdisdradt^ on. No. 2 ; Intro, and
ETr. Woods, Yoga ; ETr. Rama Prasad, SBH, iv.
Early 11th. Bhoja ; 4. Rdja-mdrtanda^ on i : Hall, 10 ; Garbe, 5 Y,
41 ; Woods, Yoga^ xiii ; ETr. Mitra, BI, 1 883.
o. 1380. Madhava; 5. Sarvadarsanasahgraha^ xv: Cowell, 231.
Mid 16th. Vijnana Bhikshu ; 6. Yoga-vdrttika, on No. 2 ; 7. Yoga-
sdrasahgraha \ Hall, 12; ETr., Jha, Bombay, 1894.
End 16th. Ramananda Sarasvati*; 8. Maniprabhdy on No. i : Hall,
12. ETr. Woods, /^O^". 191 4, i.
E. VAISESHIKA
Gen. Intro. : ERE. ii. 199 ff. ; Chatterji, The Hindu Realism^ Allahabad,
191 2 ; Colebrooke, Essays, i. 261 ; Miiller, SS, ch. ix ; Suali, Introduzione ;
H.Ui, The Vaiseshika Philosophy ace, to the Dasapaddrthasdstra^ London,
1917 ; Faddegon, The Vaiseshika System^ Amsterdam, 191 8; Keith, Logic
and Atomism; a Study of the Nydya and Vaiseshika Systems of Indian
Philosophy, in the Press, Oxford.
4th or 5th. Kanada Kasyapa; 1. Vaiseshika-sutrax ETr. Gough,
Benares, 1873 ; ETr. Sinha, SBH, vi ; GTr. Roer, ZDMG, xxi. 309-420 ;
xxii. 383-422.
* Disciple of Govindananda SarasvatT : Hall, 89. Another disciple^ named
Narayana SarasvatI, wrote a work in 1592. Woods, y>4 06". 1914, p. i.
Bb
370 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ijate6t]i. VYSiiaiSt3ipa,dR; 2, Paddrt/ia'd/iarMa'Sangrakat on I : Hall, 64.
ETr., with No. 6, Jha, Benares.
c. 600. Jnanachandra ; 3. Dakapaddrtha : CTr. by Hiouen Tsang,
A. D. 648 : Nanjio, 1295. P2Tr. of this Chinese version, H. Ui, op. cit.
Fl. 984. Udayana : Keith,//?-45. 1908, 524 ; ^,Kiraf}dvali^ on No. 2 :
Hall, 65 ; Chatterji, HR, ix ; 5. Lakshandvaif, definitions of Vai^shika
terms : Chatterji, HR, ix.
Fl. 991. Sridhara : Chanda, lAR, 197 ; 6. Nydya-Kandali on No. 2.
Yjti\}ciyJRAS, 1908, 523 ; Chatterji, HR, ix. ETr. : see No. 2, above.
11th c. Sivaditya ; 7. Saptapaddrtht : Hall, 74.
12t]i o. Vallabha Nyayacharya ; S. Nydya-lildvati \ Hall, 71.
12th c. Vardharaana Upadhyaya*; 9. Kirandvcdi-prakdsa on 4:
Hall, 65.
c. 1380. Madhava ; 10. Sarvadarsanasahgrahat ch. x : ETr. Cowell,
MS-
IJate 15th. Sankara Misra ; 11. Vatseshika-sutropciskdra, on No. i :
Chatterji, HR. x ; Hall, 68. ETr. Sinha, SBH. vi.
End 16th. Annam Bhatta ; 12. Tarka Sahgraha : Hall, 68. ETr.
Ballantyne, Allahabad, 1852. Numerous comms. : see Hall, 69-71.
Early 17th. Vi^vanatha Panchanana; 13. Bhdshd^parichchhedax
elementary, in verse: Hall, 73. ETr. Roer, BL 1850; 14. Stddhdntor
muktdvali : Comm. on No. 13. ETr. Roer, BL 1850.
Early 17th. Laugakshi Bhaskara ; 15. Tarka^kaumudi : Text, Intra,
and notes, Dvivedl, Bombay, 1886,
F. NYAYA.
Gen. Intro. : Colebrooke, Essays^ i. 261 ; Miiller, SS. viii ; Vidya-
bhushana, MSIL, ; Jacobi, Gott, Nach, 1901, 460 ; ERE, ii. 198 ; ix. 422;
M. Chakravarti, y^^S*^. 1915,260; Suali, Introduztonei Keiths /RAS.
1 914, 1089 ; Keith, Logic and Atomism ^ in the Press, Oxford.
4th or 5th. Akshapada Gotama ; 1. Nydya-sutraSy ETr. with N08. a
and3, Jha, Allahabad, 191 5: see Keith, /^^.S". 1916,613; ETr. VidySbhii-
shana, SBH, viii.
c. 500. Vatsyayana; 2. Nydya-bhdshya, on No. i : J A SB. 1910^
307. ETr., see No. I.
Fl. 630-50. Uddyotakara ; 3. Nydya-vdrttika^ on No. 2 : Vidya-
bhushana, JRAS, 1914, 603; Keith, JRAS, 1914, 1091. ETr., see
No. I.
A.D. 841. Vachaspatimisra ; 4. Nydya-vdrttika-idtparya^fikd^ im l\
5. Nydya-stlchi-nibandha, appendix to 4 : date : Woods, Yoga^ xxi.
c. 900. Jayanta ; 6. Nydya-manjart^ an encyclopaedia of the system.
c. 980. Udayana] 7. Nydya-vdrttika'tdtparya-parisuddhi^ on 4;
8. Kusuvidnjali \ ETr. Cowell, BI, 1864.
^rlkantha \ 9. Nydydlamkdra : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xvii ; 53.
Bha-sarvajna ; 10. Nydya^sdra^ with 18 commentaries : Vidy^hfi-
shana, MSIL, 53 ; Madhava, SDS, : Cowell, 165 ; 170.
Abhayatilaka ; 11. Nydya-vritti : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. xvii ; 53.
Early 12th. Gangesa; 12. Tattva-chintdmanix Vidyabhusbani.
MSIL. xviii ; Hall, 28.
12th o. Vardhamana ' ; 13. Nydya-nibandha'prakdsa^ on 7 : Hall, 31.
' Son of Gange^a, author of the famous Nyaya work, TcUtva-chinidniani.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 371
Early 13th. J ayadevami^ra; 14. Tattva-dloka, on 12: Vidyabhushana,
MSIL. xviii.
13th o. KesavaMisra; 15. Tarka-bhdshd \ Keith,/^-<4»S'. 1914, 1089;
Hall, 22: ETr. J ha, Allahabad.
0.1380. Madhava; \Q, SarvadarsanasahgrahayXi : ETr. Cowell, 161.
c. 1475. Vasudeva Sarvabhauma ; 17. Tattva-chintdmani-vydkhyd^
on 12 : Hall, 30; 18. Sdrvabhauma-nirukii^ Sen, CC. 81.
c. 1500. Raghunatha ^iromani ; 19. Tattva-dldhitiy on 12 : Hall, 31.
End 16th. Mathuranatha ; 20. Tattva-dloka-rahasya or Mathurd-
ndtht^ on 12 : Hall, 29.
c. 1600. Jagadlsa Tarkalamkara ; 21. Tattva-dtdhitv-tipf^am^ on 19:
Hall, 35- , ' •
Early 17th. Visvanatha Pafichanana; ^2, Nydya-sutra-vriiti, on i,
ETr. Ballantyne, Calcutta.
Early 17th. Laugakshi Bhaskara ; 23. Paddrtha-mdld : Hall, 26.
G. THE MATERIALISTIC SCHOOL.
They are called Lokayatikas, Charvakas or Barhaspatyas.
Gen. Intro. : Poussin, ERE, viii. 493 ; Garbe, ERE. viii. 138 ; Pizza -
gain, Ndstika^ Chdrvdka e Lokdyatika, Pisa, 1907 ; Miiller, SS. 86 ; 94 ;
Hopkins, GE, 86 ; Haribhadra, Shaddarsanasamuchchhaya ; FTr. Suali,
Le Musdotiy ix. 277 ; Madhava, SDS* ch. i : ETr. Cowell, 2.
H. COMPARATIVE AND CRITICAL PHILOSOPHICAL
LITERATURE.
c. 600. Samantabhadra, a Dig. Jain; \. Aptamlmdmsdx Guerinot, 63;
Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 23 : contains a review of the various philosophic
schools.
o. 600. Bhavaviveka, a Madhyamaka Buddhist ; 2. Tarkajvdld :
criticism of the Mimamsa, Sankhya, Vaiseshika, and Vedanta. Walleser,
DAV,T\ AMG. ii. 367.
c. 800. Vidyananda, a Dig. Jain ; 3. Ashtasdhasrf, In this work he
criticizes the six Hindu systems, except the Nyaya, and also Buddhism :
Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 26.
Late 9th. Haribhadra, a Svet. Jain ; 4. Shaddarsanasamuchchhaya^
a review of six schools.
1066. Krishnamisra, a Vedantist ; 5. Prabodhachandrodayay a drama.
12th c. Sriharsha, a Vedantist : Macdonell, 330 ; 6. Khandanakhan-
dakhddya, a criticism of the Nyaya and other schools. ETr. Jha, Allaha-
bad, 191 3 : see Keith, /^^ 5. 19 16, 377. H. P. ^astri, I. xlvi.
1304. Merutunga, a Svet. Jain ; 7. Shaddarsanavichdra ; Guerinot,
393.
1380. Madhava, a Vedantist ; 8. Sarvardarsanasahgraha^ a review of
sixteen schools : Macdonell, 406. ETr. Cowell, London, 1908.
vi. The Puranas.
Gen. Intro. : Origin and date : Hopkins, GE. 47-54 : Pargiter,
JRAS, 1912, 254; YX^qX^JRAS. 1912, 1046; Keith, /i?^ 6*. 1914, 740;
V. Smith, EH I. 2 1 . The Dynastic Lists ; Pargiter, PTDKA ; V. Smith,
B b 2
:^72 BIBLIOGRAPHY
KHL 22; Keith, /^-^kV. 191 4, 1021. Analyses: Wilson, Works^Kxi,
1-155; VP, I. i-cxvii ; Winternitz, i. 450. Contents: Pargiter, £^£.
X. 447.
Harivamsa: Intro, and analysis : Winternitz, i.3 78. Date: Jackson,
JRAS, 1907, 408, 681; 1908, 529; Keith, /^-45. 1908, 173; Hopkins,
GE. 9. FTr. Langlois, Paris, 1834 ; ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1897.
1. Brahma : Wilson, WorkSy iii. 8.
2. Padma\ Wilson, Works^ iii. 21. Telugu Tn, 1420. Analysis of
the Kriydyogasdra (an Appendix), Fonseca, Jadhrbericht, DMG, 1846, 153.
3. Vishnu I Intro, and analysis: Wilson, VP. I. cxii; Works, iii.
120; Winternitz, i. 455. Trs. : Kanarese, 12th and 17th cents.; Telugu,
1450; ETr. Wilson, KP. ; ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1894.
4. Vdyui Analysis: Wilson, VP, I. xxxv; Works y iii. 140. Date:
Hopkins, GE. 68 ; Bana, Harshachari'ta, Cowell's £Tr. 72 ; Winternitz,
i. 403.
5. Bhdgavaiai Wilson, VP, I. xxxix. Trs.: Telugu, 1435; GujaratI,
1484; Kanarese, 1600; Malayalim, I7thc. ; GujaratI, 1725; Partial Trs. ;
Bengali, 1480; Braj, Sur Das, i6th c. ; MarathI, Eknath, 1580; Kanarese,
1600; GujaratI, 1690. Intro, and FTr. Bumouf, Paris, i84off.; ETr.
Dutt, Calcutta ; ETr. (only 3 books) Krishnacharya^, Madras, 1916. For
the Bhdgavata MdhatmyUy see /PAS, 19 11, 800 ; 1 91 2, 481.
6. Ndradax Wilson, VP, I. ii.
7. Mdrkandeya : Intro, and ETr. Pargiter, Calcutta, 1904 ; ETr. Dutt,
Calcutta, 1897. ETr. of Chandimdhdtmya, Wortham, JRAS, xiiL 355.
Telugu Tr., 13th c.
8. Agni\ Wilson, VP. I. Iviii; Works ^ iii. 82. ETr. Dutt, Calcutta,
1903.
9. Bhavishya : Wilson, VP. I. Ixii.
10. Brahmavaivarta I Wilson, Works /iiugi,
XL Lmga: Wilson, VP. I. Ixvii. Tamil Tr., i6th c.
12. Vardha : Wilson, VP. I. Ixx. Telugu Tr., 1470.
13. Skandai Wilson, VP, I. Ixxii ; H. P. Sastrl, I. Hi. Partial Telugu
Tr., 1450.
14. Vdmana : Wilson, VP, I. Ixxiv.
15. Kumta\ Wilson, VP. I. Ixxiv. Trs.: Telugu, 1500, Tamil, i6thc.
Contains the Isvara Gitdi see Mitra, Notices^ vi. 115, i. 257. ETr.
Kennedy, HM, 444.
16. Matsyai Wilson, VP. I. Ixxx. Telugu Tr., 1550; ETr. of chaps, i-
128, SBH. 1916.
17. Gatuda-. Wilson, VP, I. Ixxxiii. ETr. Dutt, Calcutta, 1908.
ETr. of Garuda P. Sdroddhdra, SBH, 1 911.
18. Brahmdnda; Wilson, VP. I. Ixxxiv. Malayalim Tr., 17th c In-
cludes the Adhydtma-Rdindyana and the Lalitopdkhydna,
iiva : Wilson, VP, I. Ixxxviii. Trs. : Malayalim, 17th c; Partial ETr.,
Siddhdnta-Dlpikd,
Upapuranas : Madhusudana SarasvatI, Prastkdna-bheda'y Wilson,
VP, I. Ixxxvi.
1. Kdlikd : a Sakta work.
2. Narasimha : a Vaishnava work.
3. Sdmba : a Saura work.
4. Saura : Intro, and full analysis, Jahn, Das Saurapurdnam.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 373
5. Devi Bhagavata : sl ^akta work.
e. Aditya\ Alberuni, Sachau, i. 130; quotations in Madhva, Bhashya
on Vedanta-sutras.
7. Bhdrgava: ^eshagiri SastrT, STMSS. 1896-7, p. 151.
vii. Smarta Literature.
Note, The mass of books which are used by Smartas are Vedic litera-
ture, and are dealt with elsewhere. Here only a few special works which
spring from the Smarta position are mentioned. Books in Sanskrit,
unless otherwise described.
1. Baudhdyana Grihyastitra Parisishtas : Biihler, SBE, XIV.
XXX if.
2. The fivefold Atharvasiras U, : Weber, HIL. 170. ETr.
Kenjiedy, HM, 346, 442, 443, 491 > 493-
3. Garuda P, : see § 206.
c. 1065. Krishnamisra : Smith, EHL 392 \ 4. Prabodhachandrodaya :
ETr. Taylor, Bombay, 1893; "GTr. anon. (Th. Goldstiicker), Konigsberg,
1842; Hindi paraphrase, Kesava Dasa Misra, Vijndna Gttdx Grierson,
LH. 58; JRAS. 1908, 1 136.
Frob. 13tli c. ; 5. Yoga- Vasishtha-Rdmdyana : ETr. Vihari Lai Mitra,
Calcutta, 1891.
c. 1300. Hemadri ; 6. Chaturvarga Chintdmanii Bhandarkar, EHD. 88.
Late 14th. Vlre^vara ; 7. Vtresvara Paddhaii, a manual of conduct,
Tirhut : Sen. HELL, 140.
c. 1600. Raghunandana ; 8. Ashtdvimsati Tattva^ a manual of con-
duct, Bengal: Sen. HBLL, 74; 421.
Mukundaraj ; 9. Vivekasindhu (Marathi) : Acworth, BM. xxiii;
Mackichan, Indian Interpreter^ Jan. 191 3, 166 f.
Before 1560. Madhusudana Sarasvati ; 10. PrastMna-bheda : GTr.
Deussen, AGP, I. i. 44.
c. 1600. Alavantar Madavappattar; 11. Jndna^Vasishtham^ a Tamil
adaptation of No. 5.
c. 1660. Ananta Deva ^ ; 12. Smrlti Kaustubha, a manual of conduct.
North India : Hall, 185.
viii. Vaishnava Literature.
A. General.
1. Purusha Sukta : Rigveda^ x. 90.
2. Mahdndrdyana Upanishady No. 6, p. 364, above.
3. Mahdbhdrata^ and vernacular versions.
4. Rdmdyanciy and vernacular versions.
5. Bhagavadgiid.
B. Bhagavata Literature.
I. THE BHAGAVATA SAMPRADAYA.
Note. Bhagavatas are interested in all the books used by Smartas and
in general Vaishnava literature as well. Here only works springing from
the community are mentioned. All books in Sanskrit
^ Son of Apadeva, author of the Apadeiif, above, p. 367.
374 BIBLIOGRAPHY
, 4th or 5th. 1. Hanvamsa^ or at least the passages on Vishnu and
Siva. See | i6i.
2. Vaikhanasa Samhitas: Appaya Dikshita, quoted in Chanda,
lAR, loo; Schrader, IP AS. 55 ; ^eshagiri Rao, STMSS, 1893-6, p. 6.
7th or 8th. 3. Agni P, : see § 206.
4. Skanda £/., No. 68, p. 364, above; Jacob, EAU. I5«
c. 900. 5. Bhagavata P.: see § 272.
6. Narada-bhakti'sutrax Text and ETr. Sinha, SBH.\ ETr.
Sturdy, London (Watkins), 1904.
7. Sdndifya-bhakti'sntra : ETr. Cowell, Calcutta, 1878; Text and
ETr. with Svapne^vara's comm., Paul, SBH, 191 1. Comms. also by
Muralidasa, a Maratha Vallabha, and Narayanatirtha of the- 17th c;
Hall, 143.
8. Vasudezfa^ and 9. Gopichandana Upanishads, Nos. 72 and 119,
p. 364, above : Jacob, EA U, 5-7 : ETr. I A, 1887.
e. 1300. Vopadeva ; 10. Muktaphala and 11. Harilfld, both on the
Bhagavata P.: Bhandarkar, EHB. 89; JOM. 3542; 3533.
o. 1400. ^ridhara ; 12. Bhagavata-bhavartha'dipika^ comm. on 5.
^rl-^ukacharya ; 13. iuka-bhdshya on Veddnta-sutras i text in
Telugu characters, T. Venkatacharya, Bangalore, 1892.
2. LITERATURE OF MARATHA BHAKTAS.
Gen. Intro. : Bhandarkar, VS, 87 flf. ; Acworth, BM. Intro. ; Macnicol,
* The Indian Poetry of Devotion,* Hibbert Journal^ 1 91 7; Macnicol,
Psalms of Maratha Saints^ an anthology in ETrs., Calcutta, 1919. All
literature in Marathl.
0.1290. Jnane^vara; \, Jndnesvari\ 2. Svdtnidnubhava\ Z.Hari'
pdth ; 4. Amritdnubhava ; 5. Chdhgdeva Pdsashti (possibly spurious).
ETrs. of a few hymns and a few selections from the Jhdnekmn in
Macnicol, PMS.
c. 1300. Muktabai ; 6. Abhangs: ETrs. Macnicol, PMS,
o. 1425. Namdev ; 7. Abhangs : ETrs. of Marathl Abhangs : Bhan-
darkar, VS. 9off. ; Macnicol, PMS.; Patwardhan, Indian Interpreter^
April, 1913. Hindi hymns, MBV. i. 254 : ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 40.
o. 1425. Trilochan ; 8. Hindi hymns : ETr. Macauliffe, vi, ^%.
e. 1540. Bhanu Das ; 9. Abhangs, He was the grandfather of
Eknath.
d. 1608. Eknath ; 10. Ekndthl Bhdgwat : ETrs. of passages : Mac-
nicol, Indian Theism^ 270; PMS.] 11. ChatusloH Bhdgwat \ 12, EM-
vdrtha Rdmdyana ; 13. Haripdth.
1608-49. Tukaram; 14. Abhangs*. complete ETr., Eraser and Marathe,
Madras, 1909, &c.; select ETrs. Bhandarkar, F5.94-9; Macnicol, -PiJ/5. ;
Barnett, HI. 60; Rawlinson, Shivaji^ Oxford, 1915, 1 14-16.
1608-81. Ram Das; 15. Dasabodha: Rawlinson, op. cit., 1 16-22,
including a few translations.
1679-1728. Sridhara ; 16. Rama Vijaya^ &c. ; ETrs. in Bell, Some
Translations from the Marathi PoetSy Bombay, 1913, pp. 3-*5> 167-209.
18th c. Mahlpati; 17. Santa Lildmrita (1757), 18. Bhakta Vijaya
(1762); 19. Kathd Sdrdmrita (1765); '20. Bhakta Uldmrita (1774);
21. Santa Vijaya : ETr. Bell, op. cit., 27-42.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 375
' 3. MADHVA LITERATURE.
Gen. Intro. : Padmanabhachar, Z7i)/; Krishnaswami Iyer, Srf Madh-
7/dcMryay MsidrdiS ; Grierson, ERE, viii. 232; Bhandarkar, VS. S7 1 Ma-
dhava, SDS, v : Cowell, 87, Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.
1199-1278. Madhva : for his works, see Padmanabhachar, 196 ;
Bhandarkar, R. 1882-3, 207 ; 1. SUtra-bhdskya^ on Veddnta-sutras :
ETr. S. Subba Rau, Madras, 1904 ; ^.Anuvydkhydna (verse), on Veddnta-
SMtras ; 3. Gitd-bhdshya ; 4. Bhagavata-tdtparya-nirnaya ; 5. Mahd-
bharata-tdtparya-nirnaya ; 6. Bhashyas on ten Upanishads : see above,
p. 365 ; 7. Ten Prakaranas, or special treatises, including Tantra-sdra
on the ritual.
Late 13th. Trivikrama; 8. Tattva-pradipikd^ on i.
Late ISth. Padmanabhatlrtha ; 9. Sanydya-ratndvaliy on 2.
c. 1340. Jayatlrtha ; 10. Tattva-prakdsikdy on i ; 11. Nydya-sudhd,
on 2.
0.1360. Narayana; 12, Mammanjarl ; Siud IS, MadAvavij'ay a, pole-
mical works : summary, Krishnaswami Iyer, op. cit. ; Grierson, ERE,
viii. 232.
c. 1380. Madhava ; 14. Sarvadarsanasahgraha^ ch. v : Cowell, 87.
c. 1400. Vishnu Purl ; 15. Bhatiraindvali : Text and ETr., SBH, vii.
16. Adhydima Rdmdyana, in Kan. : contains a Madhva interpola-
tion : Padmanabhachar, ZrTW. 133.
r6th c. Vyasa-raja-svamI ; 17. Chandrikd, on No. 10; 18. Nydydmrita,
a criticism of Sankara's Vedanta ; 19. Tarka-tdndava, a criticism of the
Nyaya.
16th c. Puraiiidara Das_^ Kanaka Das, Vitthala Das, Venkata Das,
Vijaya Das, Krishna Das ; writers of Kan. hymns : Rice, KL, 59. ETrs.
GovtT.FSSLiyff.
18th e. Varaha Timmappa Das, Madhva Das : writers of Kan. hymns :
Rice, ICL, 59. ETrs. Gover, ESSI,
20. Harikathdmritasdra : popular Kan. book on doctrine.
18th e. Chidananda ; 21. Hari-bkakti-rasdyana : Kan. work on devo-
tion : Rice, KL, 60.
4. EARLY RADHA LITERATURE.
1. Gopdlatdpaniya and Krishna Upanishads, above, p. 364, Nos. 106,
107.
2. Gopdlasahasrandina', the thousand names of Krishna. lOM,
No. 2536.
3. Ndrada Pahchardtra : an old Vaishnava Sarhhita, seemingly used
and interpolated by Vishnusvamis and Vallabhacharyas ; Schrader, I PAS,
No. 71, p. 8 ; Bhandarkar, VS, 40, 86.
5. VISHNUSVAmI LITERATURE.
13th c. VishnusvamI ; 1. Gitd-bhdshya ; 2. Veddnta-sutra-bhdshya \
3. Bhdgavata-bhdshya \ 4. Vishnu-rahasya \ 5. Tattvatraya,
o. 1300. ^rlkantamisra ; 6. Sakdra-siddhi : Madhava, SDS, : Cowell,
141 ; 142.
o. 1400. Bilvamangala or Lllasuka ; 7. Krishnakarndmrita,
Varadaraja ; 8. Bhdgavata-laghu-tlkd : MS. in Library of Sanskrit
College, Benares.
376 BIBLIOGRAPHY
6. NIMBARKA LITERATURE.
Gen. Intro. : Hhandarkar, VS, 62 ; Growse, Mathurd^ 147, 148, 189)
194, 200; Wilson, Sects, 150. All books in Sansk. unless otherwise
described.
1. Gauiamiya S,\ early work used by Nimbarkas for ritual:
Schrader, IP AS. 7; lOM. iv. 865.
13th o. Nimbarka ; 2. Vedanta-parijata'Saurabha, a vritti on the
Veddnta-sfitras \ 3. Dasaslokl, or Veddnta-raina, or SideUidnta-raina',
Hall, 114. ETr. Bhandarkar, VS, 63.
13th o. Srinivasa ; 4. Veddnta-Kaustubha, a bhashya on the Veddntor
sutras,
Purushdttama ; 6. Veddnta-ratna-manjiishd, on ^i Hall, 114.
Devacharya ; 6. Siddhdnta-jdhnavi.
Sundara Bhat^ ; 7. Dvaiiddvaita-siddhdnta'Seiuka^ on 6.
Early 16th. Ke^ava Kashmiri \ 8. Veddnta'kaustubha-frabhdy on 4;
9. Gftd'tattva-prakasikd', Hall^ 118; \0, Kramadtfnkdy selections from
No. I.
Early 16th. Harivyasa Deva ; 11. Dasasloki'bhdshya^ on 3 : Hall, 115.
Early 16th. Harivyasa Deva and ^rl Bhaft ; 12. Pada^ Hindi hymns
for sanklrtan.
13. Krishna-jafwia-khmida of Brahma^vaivarta P,
7. CHAITANYA LITERATURE.
Gen. Intro.: Wilson, Sects, 152; Sen, HBLL»; CC; VLMB.\
Sarkar, CPT. ; Bhandarkar, VS. 82. For the temples in Brindaban, sec
Growse, M., and Sen, VLMB. 51. Estimates of the movement, Kennedy,
Young Men of India, July, 191 8; Underwood, CcUcutta Review^ \^\%
p. 37. Lit. in Bengali, unless otherwise described.
1509- IL Govinda Das ; 1. Kadchd, i. e. note-book, of very dubious
authenticity : Sen, CC. 232 ; Bhagavata Kumara GosvSmI ^tri, art,
* Vaishnava Dharma o ^ri-Chaitanya Yuga,' in Sdhitya Samhitd, 1309
(i.e. A.D. 1903).
1614. Murari Gupta ; 2. Kadcha (Sansk.) : Sen, CC, 109.
o. 1618. Sarvabhauma ; 3. Gaurdhgdshtaka (Sansk.) : Sen, CC. 2^
Early 16th. Narahari Sarkar ; 4. Hymns : Sen, CC. loa
Early 16th. Vam^Ivadana ; 6. Hymns : Sen, CC. 104.
o. 1640. Vasudeva Ghosh ; 6. Hymns : Sen, CC. 107.
d. 1691. Rupa (works in Sansk.) : Sen, VLMB. 26 ; 7. Vidagdha-md-
dhava\ S. Lalita-madhava', 2ind9. Bdnakeii'kaumui&ydnLmas; 10. Pad-
mdvati\ and W.. Stavamdld,\iYa\n'&\ 12. Ganadvesadipikdx Chaitanya's
companions are gopis incarnate ; 13. Bhaktiratndmritasindhu ; and 14.
Ujjvalamlamani, on bhakti and love ; 15. Mathurd'mdh&tmya of the,
Vardha P.: Growse, M. 78, 89, 142, 198; Sen, VLMB. 36.
d. 1691. Sanatana (works in Sansk.) : Sen, VLMB. 36, 38 ; 16. Hari-
bhaktivildsa, a ritual code ; 17. Vaishtiavatoshim, comm. on BhdgavataP*
d. 1572. Murari Gupta ; 18. ChcUtanyacharita (Sansk.) : Sen, VLMB*
7o> 11'
d. 1672. Kavikamapura; 19. Chaitanyachandrodaya (Sansk. drama):
Sen, FZ.l//>'. 71.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 377
c. 1570. Vrindavana Das ; 20. Chaiianyabhagavata^ A. D. 1 573, Sen,
VLMB. 74 ; HBLL. 464 ; 21. Nitydnanda-vamsa-visiaray Sen, VLMB,
164.
o. 1575. Lochana Das ; 22. Chaitanyamahgal, Sen, VLMB. 80.
c. 1575. Jayananda; 23. C halt any amahgal^ Sen, VLMB. 80; HBLL,
471.
1581. Krishna Das Kaviraj ; 24. Chaitanyacharitdmritay Sen, HBLL,
477 ; VLMB. 58. ETr. of middle section, Sarkar, CPT,
Fl. 1580-1610. Jiva (works in Sansk.) ; 25. Satsandarbha, Theology ;
26. Krishndrchanadlpikdy Ritual ; 27. Krainasandarbhay comm. on
Bhdgavata P. ; 28. Comm. on Brahma S. ; and many other works :
Sen, VLMB. 40.
Fl. 1610-40. Govinda Das, Jfiana Das, Balarama Das, and other
hymn-writers t Sen, VLMB. 183 ; 197.
c. 1625. Nityananda Das ; 29. Premavildsa, history of sect in verse :
Sen, VLMB. 16^.
1704.- Visvanatha Chakravartl; 30. Comm. on Bhdgavata P.i.Stn,
VLMB. 177.
Early 18th. Narahari Chakravartl; 31. Bhaktiraindkara, history of
sect: Sen, VLMB. 177.
Early 18th. Vaishnava Das ; 32. Padakalpataru^ anthology of the
hymns : Sen, HBLL. 563.
Eaxly 18th. Baladeva ; 33. Govinda-bhdshya (Sansk.), on Veddnia-
siitras : ETr. S. C. Vasu, SBH. v.
8. vallabhAcharya literature.
Gen. Intro. : Wilson, Sects ^ 119; Bhandarkar, VS. 76; History of the
Sect of Mahdrdjas, or Vallabhdchdryas, in Western India^ London, 1865 ;
Growse, M. 283 ; 295 ; Hall, 145-6. For Vallabha lit. in Braj, see
Growse, M. 295; Grierson, LH.^ pp. 20 ff. Lit. in Sansk., unless other-
wise described.
1479-1531. Vallabha ; 1. Brahma-sUtra-anubhdshyay on the Veddnta-
siitras \ 2. Tattva-dJpa-nibandha, a manual of his system ; 3. Prakdsa^
comm. on 2, by VaUabha, with 4. Avarana-bhahgavydkhyd, a super-
comm. on 3, by Pitambara. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 together form the Vidyd-
vaijayantt ; 5. Srl-subodhini, on the Bhdgavata P. ; 6. Gdyatri-bhdshya ;
7. faiminJya-sHtra-bhdshya : Hall, 208 ; 8. Siddndnta Rahasya : Text
and ETr. Growse, M. 285 ; 9. Krishna'previa-amritay with gloss by
Vitlhalnath.
c. 1540. Vitthalnath ; 10. Ratna-vivarana : Growse, M. 295 ; Grier-
son, LH. 20.
c. 1550. Krishna Das; 11. Prem-ras-ras (Braj) : Grierson, LH. 21.
1551. Gokulnath ; 12. Chaurdst Bdrtd (Braj) : Lyall, EB. xiii. 487 ;
Wilson, SectSy 132; Growse, M. 296.
Late 16th. Sur Das : Grierson, LH. 21 ; Prasad, SBS. ii. 55 ; MBV.
i. 269. 13. Silr Sdgar^ Trs. in Braj from Bhdgavata P. ; 14. Sursdrd-
valiy an anthology from the Siir Sdgar.
c. 1600. Giridharajl ; 15. Suddhddvaita-mdrtanda.
■ Balakrishna Bhatta ; 16. Prameyaratndrnava.
c. 1743. Braj BasI Das ; 17. Braj Bilds, Braj poem on Radha :
Grierson, LIL 97 ; Growse, M. 75 n.
378 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1767-1852. Dayaram ; 18. Many works in Bnij, Gujarat!, &c: Jhaveri,
MGL, 2 16.
9. RADHA-VALLABHI LITERATURE.
Qen. Intro.: Growse, Af. 199; Grierson^ LH. 28; ERE. x. 559. Lit.
in Hindi, unless otherwise described.
o. 1680. Hari Vaiii^a ; 1. Radha-sudha-nidhi fSansk.) : Text and £Tr.
of 26 stanzas, Growse, M» 204; 2. Ckaurdsi Padai or Hit ChaurM
DMm\ Text and ETr. of 12 stanzas, Growse, M, 208 ; 3. Spkut Pada^
hymns.
Early 17th. Dhruva Das ; 4. Jtv-dasdy and many other works:
Growse, M, 216.
Damodar ,Das ; 5. Se^oak-bdnly and other works, Growse, M» 100,
216; Wilson, 6>^/j, 177.
10. HARI DASl LITERATURE.
Qen. Intro. : Growse, M. 217; Grierson, LH, 59. Lit. in Hindi.
o. 1600. Hari Das. Life and Selections, Prasad, SBS, ii. 67 ; 1. Scidha-
ranSiddhant : Text and ETr. Growse, M, 223 flf. ; 2. Ras ke Pada, hynrns]
3. Bharathari'Vairdgya,
o. 1660. Biharinl Das ; 4. Pada^ hymns ; one hymn in Text and ETr.
Growse, M, 222. There were several other writers.
II. SVAMi NARAYANI literature.
Gton. Intro : Monier Williams, BH, 148; Russell and Hira Lai, i. 526 ff.
The Svdmt'Ndrdyani Sect, Education Society's Press, Bombay, 1887.
Early 19th. Svaml Narayana; 1. Sikshd-pdtri : a Sanskrit code of
212 precepts, accompanied by a long commentary: Monier Williams,
BH. 148.
.Much Gujarat! verse by Premanand, Brahmanand, Muktanand, Niskul-
anand, and other ascetics : Jhaveri, MGL. 181 ; 199 ff.
12. radhA-krishna poetry, literary and
unsectarian.
Ijate 12th. Jayadeva; 1. Gitdgovinda (Sansk.) : Macdonell, 344. ETr.
Arnold, London, 1881 ; GTr. Riickert, Leipzig; FTr. Gourtillier, Paris,
1904 ; 2. Radha-Krishna songs in Bengali attributed to him ; Sen, HBLL
o. 1400. Chandl* Das; 3. Songs in Bengali : Sen, HBLL. 115. ETr.
of two songs, Beames, I A. 1873, 187.
15th c. Vidyapati; 4. Songs in Maithill: Sen, HBLL. 135 if. Text
and ETr. Grierson, Introduction to the Maithili Language^ Calcutta,
1882 ; LH. 9. ETr. of over 100 songs from the Bengali text, Coomara-
swamy, Vidyapati, Bahgiy a Paddbali^ London, 191 5.
15th c. Umapati ; 5. Songs in Bengali and in Maithili : Sen, VLMB.
1-9,* where the text of three of the songs is given. Grierson, LH, II.
^ Mr. Sen identifies this Umapati with the Sanskrit poet Umapati Dhara refened
to by Jayadeva at the beginning of the Gitdgovinda^ but the evidenoe tends to the
conclusion that the author of the Bengali poems was a contemporary of Vidyapftti.
See MUra Bandhu Vinode, i. 250.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 379
Late 15th. Nzirsingh Mehta; 6. Songs in Gujarat! and Hindi : Jhaveri,
MGL, 35 if. ; text of two Hindi songs in Prasad, SBS» ii. 78 (date
erroneous).
Ijate 15th. Mira Bai ; 7. Songs in Braj and Gujarat! : a few Braj songs
in Prasad, SBS, ii. 68. One Braj song in ETr., Macauliffe, vi. 342.
Gujarat! songs: see Jhaveri, MGL. 29. Date erroneous in all three
works. See also MBV, i. 297.
leth and 17th. Numerous Maithil! poets. Sen, VLMB, 7.
1650. Bihar! Lai Chaube \ 8. Sat Sat : 700 couplets in Hind! in praise
of Krishna : Grierson, LH, 75.
9. Malayalim songs : Gover, FSSL 248; 255.
C. Pancharatra Literature.
I. GENERAL.
1. Pancharatra sections in MBH, ; see above, § 105.
2. Vishnu and other Puranas.
3. Mahd, Ndrctyana, Atmabodha^ and Subdld Upanishads, Nos. 44, 45,
46, and 55, p. 364, above.
4. TheSamhitas: Schrader, //'^6' ; Govindacharyajyi^-^^*^. 1911,935;
Iyengar, Outlines y 174.
2. ^RI-VAISHNAVA LITERATURE.
Lit. in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.
7th to 9th. The Alvars; 1. Hymns in Tamil: Govindacharya, The
Holy Lives of the Azhvars^ Mysore (uncritical but useful) ; K. Aiyangar,
AI. chs. vii, XV, xviii, xix; S. Aiyangar, TS, chs. viii, xi; Barnett,
BMCTB, vi. Nammalvar's works are held to represent the Vedas (K.
Aiyangar, AL 398), thus :
a. Tiruviruttam : R ik.
b. Tiruvoymoli \ Saman.
c. Tiruvasiriyam I Yajus-
d. Periyatiruvandddi : Atharvan.
o. 1000. Nathamuni : Govindacharya, R, ch. i ; Rajagopalachariar,
VRI^ i-i I ; 26 ; 2. Ndldyira Prabandham, the hymns of the Alvars (Tam.)
edited for study and singing; 3. Nydya-tattva\ 4. Yoga-rahasyax Hall, 17.
o. 1050. Yamuna, or Alavandar : Govindacharya, 7?. ch. iii ;_ Raja-
gopalachariar, VR[, 26-49 ; 5. Siddhi'traya ; Text, Benares ; 6. Agama-
pramdnya : Text, Benares ; 7. Gttdrtha-sahgraha ; 8. Alamandara stotra ;
9. Ratnastotra : a few verses in ETr. Bamett, HL 42.
c. 1080. Yadava Prakasa or Govinda-j!ya (Ramanuja's former guru) ;
10. Yati-dharma-samuchchhaya^ a work on ^ri-Vaishnava sannyas!s : see
Govindacharya, R, 74.
c. 1050-1137. Ramanuja: Keith, ERE. x. 572. Life : Tamil life by
Pinbalag!a-Perumal-j!ya : ETr. Govindacharya, Madras, 1906; brief
life, Rajagopalachariar, VRL 50-77 ; a life called Achdryaparicharyay
Rama Mi^ra Sastri, Benares. System: Thibaut, SBE, xxxiv. Intro.;
Sukhtankar, TVR.\ Bhandarkzir, VS, 50 if.; 11. Veddrtha-sahgraha \
Hall, 116; 12. Sri-bhdshya^ on the Veddnta-siitras : ETr. Thibaut, SBE,
xlviii ; ETr. Rangacharya and Aiyangar, Madras, 1899 ; 13. Gftd-
bhdshya: ETr. Govindacharya, Madras, 1898; 14. Veddnta-sdrai see
Dravida Veda.
38o BIBLIOGRAPHY
Thibaut, SBE. XXXIV. xvi. Two other works, Veddnta-dipa and
Veddnia'taitva'Sdra^ are attributed to him, but are of doubtful authen-
ticity : Sukhtankar, op. cit., 3.
1:5. Bhagavad'vishayam^ anonymous Tarn. comm. on Nammajvar's
Tiritvoymolii Partial ETr., A. Govindacharya, Divine Wisdom o/Drdvik
Saints, Madras, 1902.
13th o. Pinbajagia-Perumal-Jlya ; 16. Tamil life of Ramanuja : ETl
A. Govindacharya, Madras, 1906.
End 13th. Pillai Lokacharya ; 17. Ariha-panchaka (Tarn.) : ETr.
A. Govindacharya, /A*-4 5. 1910, 565; 18. Tattva-traya (Tam.): ETr.
Parthasarathi Yogi ; 19. ^rt-vachana-hhushana (Tam.) : ETr. Parthasa-
rathi Yogi. ,
o. 1350. Sudar^ana Bhat^a ; 20. Sukapakshiya, comm. on Bkfigavaia
/*., Rajagopalachariar, VRL 99 f.
o. 1380. Madhava ; 21. Sarvadarscmasahgraha, ch. iv. Cowell, 64.
o. 1380. Vedanta De^ika, or Venkata-natha : Rajagopalachariar, VRl
91 ff.; RangacharT, Brahmavddin, Oct.-Nov. 1912, 597; Govindacharya,
YMD, 171 ; 22. Satadushani: against ^ankara's Vedanta; 23. Ny&y(ir
siddhanjana : Vi^ishtadvaita philosophy ; 24. Sesvara-mimdms& : on die
Mimaihsa ; 25. Rahasya-iraya'Sdra : a manual of the system in Tamil;
26. Sahka/fia'Siiryodaya, an allegorical drama : Text and ETr. by
K. Narayanacharya, Madras, 191 7; 27. Pdnchardtrarakshd, on the
Vaishnava Samhitas : Schrader, J PAS, 4, 18.
Early 15th. Ramya-jamatri-muni : Rajagopalachariar, VRL 132 £;
Gopalasvami Iyengar, Brah?navddin, Oct.-Nov. 1912, 610; Govinda-
charya, FiT/Z>. 171 ; 28. Tattva-nirupana'y 29. UpadesaratnamdlU(^zjai)*
o. 1600. Appaya-dlkshita ; many comms. : Govindacharya, YMB.^
Preface.
o. 1600. Chanda-maruta Mahacharya ; 30. Chanda-mdrutOy a comm*
on No. 22 : Govindacharya, YMD, iv ; 172.
0. 1650. ^rinivasa ; 31. Yatindra-mata-dipikd : Intro, and ETr.
Govindacharya, Madras, 1912 ; Schrader, IP AS. 176.
3. MANBHAU LITERATURE.
Gen. Intro.: Bombay Gazetteer ^ xviii. 181 ; xix. 120; Crooke, ERE*
ii. 504; Monograph 131, Bombay Ethnographic Survey ' Chandorkar and
Raj wade in Proceedings of Bhdrata Itihdsika Safnsodhaka McMdala, 191 5)
191 6; Yadavagiri Mahatmya of the Ndrada Purdna,
1. Dattdtreya U,\ No. 112, p. 364.
2. Dattdtreya S, : Schrader, IP AS. 7.
3. Manbhau books in MarathT : Ltid Samvdd, Lild Charity Sutror
path, Darsan Prakds, Chakradhar Charit, Chdhgdev Charitra, TirthdvaU.
4. Kaivadya Dipikd (Sansk.).
4. LITERATURE OF NARASIMHA SECT.
Gen. Intro. : Deussen, SUV, 752 ; Krishna ^astri, SIL 24.
1. Nrisimha-purva-tdpantya U, ; and 2. Nrisimha-uttara-tdpaniya V*
Intro, and GTr. Deussen, SUV, 752. Cf. also Weber, HIL. 167; Schrader,
IP AS, 143.
3. Nrisimha Upapurdna : Alberuni, Sachau, i. 130. Tel. Tr., A. D. 130a
4. Nrisimha Samhitd : Schrader, IP AS, 8, 18.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 381
5. RAMAITE LITERATURE.
A. Early Sanskrit Works.
1. Rdmayana^ vi. 1 19.
2. Samkshepa Rdmdyana : icx5 slokas from the first book of the Rdmd-
yana^ for children.
3. Rdma-purva'tdpantya U, ; and 4. Rdma-uitara-tdpaniya U, Intro..
^ and GTr. Deussen, SUV. 802. Cf. also Weber, HIL. 168 ; Schrader,
IP AS. 121.
6. Agastya-Sutikshna'samvdda : Schrader, IP AS, 6 ; referred to in
Adhydtma-Rdrndyana, III. ii. 26; IV. iv. 30-1 ; VI. v. 9.
11th c. Damodaramisra ; 6. Hanumdn Ndtaka, a drama, ETr. Wilson,
TH, ii. 363.
c. 1300. 7. Adhydtma Rdmdyana : ETr. Lala Baij Nath, SBH, 1 91 3.
8. Adbhuta Rdmdyana \ Text, ^rlvenkate^vara Press, Bombay.
9, Bhusundi Rdmdyana : Gr'i^xson, JRAS, 1912, 797.
B. Early Hindi Hymns.
i Early 15th. Sadana ; 1. Hymns : Prasad, SBS. fi. 36. ETr.
: Macauliffe, vi. 84.
Early 15th. Beni ; 2. Hymns : ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 88.
c. 1425. Namdeva : see above, under Maratha Bhaktas ; 3. Hymns :
I Prasad, SBS, ii. 28 ; ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 17 ; 40.
c. 1425. Trilochana; 4. Hymns: ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 76; 78.
': C. The RamAnandis.
c. 1400-70. Ramananda: a.rt,/RAS., Jan. 1920; 1. Hymns; Wilson,
Sec/Sy 46 ; Grierson, LH. 7 ; ERE, x. 569. ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 105.
Bom 1425. Pipa ; 2. Hymns : Prasad, SBS. ii. 28. ETr. Macauliffe,
VI. III.
Late 15th. Rai Das ; 3. Hymns : Prasad, SBS, i. 35 ; ii. 32 ; Bhan-
darkar, VS. 74 ; Grierson, ERE. x. 560. ETr. Macauliffe, vi. 316.
Iiate 15th. Sena; 4. Hymns: Bhandarkar, KS*. 74. ETr. Macauliffe,
vi. 120.
1532-1623. Tulsl Das: Grierson, Z,^. 42; /RAS. 1903, 447 ff.
Theology, Thibaut, SBE. xxxiv, p. cxxvii ; Carpenter, Theology of Tulsl
Das, Madras, 191 8; 5. Rdma-charit-mdnas \ Grierson, JRAS, 1912,
794; 1913, 133; 1914, 416. ETr. Growse, Allahabad, 1^97; 6. Gltd-^
ball', the story of Ram in songs: y7?-<4.S'. 1903, 452; 7. Kabittdbati ',
the story of Ram in songs: JRAS, 1903, 453; 8. Binay Pattrikd:
hymns to Ram: JRAS, 1903, 454. Other works: Grierson, LH, 4S{,
Selections: Prasad, SBS. i. 71; 239; ii. 79. ETr. of extracts: Bhan-
darkar, VS. 75 f.
c. 1600. NabhajT, 9. Bhakta-mdld : Grierson, JRAS, 1909, 607 ; 19 10,
87 ; 269.
1574-1682.^ Maluk Das; 10. Poems : Growse, M. 230; Prasad, SBS.
i. 99 ; ii. 102 ; Wilson, Sects, 100 ; Grierson, ERE, viii. 374.
1712. Priya Das. 11. Gloss on Bhakta Mdld : Grierson, LH, 86 ;
MBV. \. 390 ; ii. 607. •
12. Agastya S., including Ramananda's life: text and Hindi Tr.,
-Rama Narayana Das, 1904 : Bhandarkar, VS. 67 n. 2 : this is the Agastya-
Sutikshna-samvdda, No. 5, above.
^ These dates come from his living descendants : Prasad, SBS, i. 99.
3«a BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Reformed Literature.
A. Kabir and the Kabirpanth.
1440-1518. Kabir; 1. Poems: Westcott, Kabir \ Bum, ERE, vi
632 ; Shah, Bijak of Kabir^ Hamirpur, U. P., 1917 ; Wilson, Sects^ 6
His mysticism : Evelyn Underhill in Tagore, One Hundred Poems <
Kabir f London, 191 3. ETr. of Bijak ^ Shah, op. cit. ETrs. of selection:
Tagore, op. cit ; Wilson, op. cit. 79 ; Westcott, op. cit. ; Bhandarka
VS, 70; Macauliffe, vi. 122.
2. Gutkd^ the Prayer Book of the Kabirpanth : Powlett, Ulvm
60-9, including fragments in ETr.
3. Puno Granihy the Service Book of the Kabirpanth : Westcd
128.
DhanI Dharm Das : 4. Poems: Prasad, SBS, ii. 37 ; Shah,^(/<i>^,i;
i^i?F. i. 256; 356.
1729. 5. Sukh Nidhan\ analysis, WestCott, 141.
6. Afnar Miil\ analysis, Westcott, 148.
B. The Sikhs.
Gen. Intro. : Macauliffe ; Trumpp, Adi Granth, London, l87(
Dorothy Field, The Religion of the Sikhs ^ London, 1914.
1469-1538. Nanak; 1. Hymns; 2. Nirdkdra Mtmdmsa \ S. Adbkm
GltcL.
d. 1574. Amar Das ; 4. Hymns.
d. 1581. Ram Das ; 5. Hymns.
d. 1606. Arjan ; 6. Hymns ; 7. Adi Granth : ETr. Macauliflfe ; partia
ETr. Trumpp ; a few pieces in ETr. Dorothy Field,
Late 16th. Gur Das; 8. Bhai Gur Das ki Wdr \ partial ETi
Macauliffe, IV. 241.
d. 1708. Gobind Singh ; 9. Granth of the Tenth Guru ; 10. PeSkj^
granthl^ the Prayer Book.
C. The DadOpanth.
Qen. Intro. : Traill, ERE. iv. 385.
1644-1603. Dadu; 1. BanI: Prasad, 5^5. i. 235 ; ii. 90. ETr. of
two chapters, Siddons,/-46'i5. vi. 484 ; reproduced, Wilson, Sects^ lofk
FL 1600. Rajjab Das ; 2. Bdnu
1598-1689. Sundar Das ; 3. Bdiii ; 4. Gydn-Samudra ; 6. SwUtt
Vi/ds. Selections: Purohita Harinarayana, Sundarsdr^ Benares, 191S;
Prasad, SBS, i. 106; ii. 107.
Nischal Das ; 6. Vichdrasdgara : Text, Bombay, 1900 ; 7. Vri1&
Prabhdkara,
o. 1740. Giridhar Kabraya ; 8. Kundaliyd,
D. Lal Dasis.
Gen. Intro. : Powlett, Ulwur, 53, including a few pieces in ETr.
E. Satnamis.
Gen. Intro. : Sarkar, Mod, Rev. 1916, 383 ; Wilson, SectSy 356; Blia|t-
acharya, HCS, 491 ; Russell and Hira Lal, 307,
c. 1750. Jagjivan Das ; 1. Gydn Prakds ; 2. Mahdpralay \ 3. PraihoB
Granth: Prasad, SBS, i. 117; ii. 130; Grierson, Z/r. 87.
c. 1770. Dulan Das; 4. Poems: Prasad, SBS. i. 133; ii. 157.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 383
F. Charan Dasis.
Gen. Intro. : Grierson, ERE. iii. 365.
1703-82. Charan Das; 1. Works: Grierson, ^^iS". iii. 368; Prasad,
SBS. i. 142, 247; ii. 179; Wilson, Sects^ 178.
o. 1750. Sahajo Bal; 2. Poems : Prasad, SBS, i. 154; ii. 191.
c. 1750. Daya Bal ; 3. Poems : Prasad, ^'^^S". i. 167 ; ii. 194.
ix. I§aiva Literature.
A. General Saiva Literature.
I. Sanskrit: used everywhere.
1. Saiarudrlyay a hymn in the Black Yajurveda^ Taittiriya S., IV. v ;
Keith, TS» ii. 353 ; also White Yajus^ xvi : Griffith, 140. Recited in
Saiva temples every morning.
2. Svetdsvaiara U,i No. 8, p. 364, above.
3. Saiva sections in MHB,y especially Sivasahasranama, See § 109.
4. Saiva U pan i shads : see § 112.
6 Saiva Puranic documents : see §§ 159 ; 206 ; 226.
6. Mahimnastavax Text and ETr. Arthur Avalon, Calcutta, 1917.
7. Sivdnandalaharl, a poem for children.
II. Vernacular, and therefore Local, but not Sectarian.
a. Tamil:
Sth or 6th. Nakkira Deva; 1. Tirumuruhattuppadai\ Barnett,
BMCTB, iii ; Fraser, ERE, v. 23. •
15th c. Aruna-giri ; 2. Tiru-puhaL
16th c. Varatunga Pandya ; 3. Lih^a Ptirdna.
16th c. Ativirarama Pandya ; 4. Kiirma Purdna,
17th c. Paranjoti; 5. Tim- Vilaiy-ddar-purdnami Pope, TV,, pp. xvii,
xxxvii; BMCTB. vi.
Mid 17th. Siva-guna-yogi ; 6. Viveka^chintdmaniy a Saiva cyclo-
paedia.
17th c. ^iva Prakasa SvamI ; 7. Tamil Tr. of Prabhu = liiiga = Itld
(No. 16, p. 387, below) : Rice, KL, 49; 8. Tam. Tr. of Siddhdnia = si-
khdmani^ No. 6, p. 387, below.
17th c. , Kumaraguruparasvami ; 9. Religious poems.
1785. Siva-jnana-yogl ; 10. Kdhchi-purdna,
b. Telugu :
c. 1400. Vemana : Life, Vemana^ Ramakrishna Rau, Madras.
1, Padyamuhi, Verses : ETr. Brown, The Verses of Vemana, republished,
Madras, 1911 ; Partial ETr. Gover, FSSL 269 ff. ETr. of a few verses,
Barnett, HI, 109.
c. 1420. ^rlnath and others : 2. portions of Skanda P.
c. 1500. Rajalinga ; 3. Kurma P,
c. 1550. Haribhadra ; 4. Matsya P,
c. Bengali:
Not a large literature : Sen, HBLL. 235 ff.
c. 1750. Ramesvara ; 1. Sivdyana : Sen, HBLL, 249.
3«4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
d. GujaratT :
Mid 18th. Sivanand; 1. Lyrics: Jhaveri, MGL, i6i.
e. Malayalim:
17th c. 1. Siva P.\ and 2. Brahmdfida P,
f. Marathl :
13th c. Jnanadeva ; 1. Amrltdnubhava,
Mukundaraj ; 2. Mulasthambha,
g. Kanarese :
17th o. Sahajananda ; 1. Bkaktirasayana : Rice, AX* 6o n. I.
B. Literature of Pa^upata Saivas.
I. LAKULT^A-PA^UPATAS.
Gen. Intro.: R. D. Bhandarkar, /5^^-45. 1908, 151; ARAB,
1906-7, 179; Bhandarkar, VS. Ii6flf.
1. Vdyu A, chs. xi, xiv, xv, xxiii ; Lihga P., ch. vii ; Kiimia P., pt i,
ch. liii ; Siva /*., Vayavlya S., pt. ii, chs. ix-x.
2. Early philosophical texts, sutras, bhashyas, karikas, now lost:
Madhava, SDS. vi : Cowell, 103; Bhandarkar, VS, 120-1.
e. 1380. Madhava ; 3. Lakultsa-Pdsupata, SDS, vi : Cowell, 103.
2. KAPALIKAS.
Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS, 118, 127.
3. GORAKSHANATHlS.
Gen. Intro.: Wilson, Sects, 213; Grierson, ERE, vi. 328; Garbc,
S Y, 42 : Richard Schmidt, Fakire und Fakirtum^ Berlin, 1908. Books
in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.
e. 1200. Gorakshanatha ; 1. Hatha-yoga : Hall, 15 ; 2. Garaksko'
sataka : Hall, 18 ; ^. Jhdndmrita : Hall, 15; 4. Goraksha^kalpai Wilson,
Sect^, 216 ; 5. Goraksha-sahasrandma : Wilson, ib. ; 6. Hindi woiks in
verse attributed to him: MBV. I. 24 1.
Svatmarama ; 7. Hatha-yoga-prcidipikdy on i : Hall, 15. Textand
ETr. in SBH,
8. Gheranda Samhitd : Text and ETr. in SBH, GTr. in Richard
Schmidt, op. cit.
9. Siva Samhitd : Hall, 14 ; 17. Text and ETr., S. C. Vasu in SBH,
10. Hatha-sahketa-chandrikd : Hall, 17,
Madidhara ; 11. Goraksha-paddhati : a Hindi Tr. of No. 4, with
a bhdshya.
The following works are used by Kanphata Yogis to-day, and some
of them are attributed to Goraksha : Visvdnanda T, \ Siddha-siddhiintar
paddhati (see Hall, 15); NiraHjana P, ; Yoga-mafifari ; Gorakshof
kaumudt\ Goraksha-gltd \ Goraksha-pahckaya,
C. Literature of Agamic Saivas.
I. GENERAL.
, The Saiva Agamas : See Ramana ^astn's ETr. of Appaya Dikshita's
Sivdrkamanidipikd^ No. 7, p. 385; Chatterji, ICS,y; Schomerus, SS. 7-43
(chronology erroneous). _ ETr. of parts of the Mrigendra A, (the first
section of the Kdmika A,) in the Siddhdnta Dipikdy iv fF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 385
2. SANSKRIT -SCHOOL OF ^AIVA SIDDHANTA.
All books in Sanskrit.
1. Early writers, otherwise unknown, mentioned by Madhava,
SDSf vii. ,
c. 1380. Madhava ; 2. Saiva Darsana. SDS, vii : ETr. Cowell, 112.
o. 1400. Srikantha Sivacharya ; 3. Saiva Bhashya on Vedantasutras :
Partial ETr. in the Siddhdnta pipikd^ i ff.
16tli c. ^ambhudeva ; 4. Saiva-siddkdnta^dipikd : Bhandarkar, VS,
1 26-7. Tamil Tr., No. 31, p.386, below. 5. Sambhu-paddhati : dogmatic
and ritual.,
6. Siva /*., VayavIyaS. : Bhandarkar, VS, 127, 160,
c. 1600. Appaya Dikshita ; 7. Sivdrkamanidipikd^ a comm. on 3.
Partial ETr. V. V. Ramana ^astrl, Madras.
c. 1650. Nllakantha ; 8. Kriydsdra^ containing a synopsis of 3.
9. Soma'Sambhu'paddhati-vritti : comm. on No. 5.
3. TAMIL SCHOOL OF :§AIVA SIDDHANTA.
Intro. : No history exists ; but see, Frazer, ERE. v. 23 flf. ; Schomerus,
SS. ; N alias vami Pillai, SSS, the file of the Siddhdnta Dipikd, where
numerous Trs. from the Tamil may be read ; and Sundarani Pillai, Some
Mile-stones in Tamil Lit* The System : Hoisington's Tf. oi Siva-prakdsa,
No. 18, below, is the best exposition in English ; the work of Schomerus
in German is more recent. All books in Tamil.
7th c. Sana-sambandhar; 1. Hymns. ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips.
7th c. Appar : NallasvamI Pillai, Saint Appar^ Madras, 1910.
2. Hymns : ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips.
8th or 9th. Sundara-murti ; 3. Hymns. ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips.
For the chronology of THE THREE, see BMCTB. v ; art., in Tamilian
Antiquary^ 1909 ; Frazer, ERE, v. 23.
c. 800. Tirumular ; 4. Tirumantram : ETrs. Siddhdnta Dipikd, i ff.
o. 900. Manikka Vachaka. Date : BMCTB, v ; S. Aiyangar, TS, 401 ;
Frazer, ERE, v. 23 ; 5. Tiru-vdchakam : Text, Intro., ETr., and Comm.,
Pope, Tiruvdsagam, Oxford, 1900 ; ETrs. Kingsbury and Phillips ; two
ETrs. Arunachalam,- STT 7 ; ETr. of one hymn, Bamett, HI, 83 ;
6. Tirukkovaiyar*
10th c. Pattinattu Pillai ; 7. Hymns : Frazer, ERE, v. 23 ; BMCTB, vi.
c. 1000. Nambiy-andkr-nambi : S. Aiyangar, TS, 220; 8. Tondar-
tiruvantddi and other poems.
Early 12th. Sekkirar ; 9. Periya Purdnam : Frazer, ERE. v, 23 ;
Pope, TV, xciv ; BMCTB. vi.
12th c. Kafichl Appar ; 10. Kanda Purdnam^ Tr. of the Skanda Purdna.
12th c. Uyyavandan ; 11. Tiruvuntiydr : 45 triplets. ETr. Siddhdnta
jyipikd^ xiv.
12th c. Uyyavandan ; 12. Tirukkalirruppadiydr ; 100 quatrains.
c. 1223. Meykanda; l^.Siva-jndna-bodhai I2sutras: ETr, Bamett,
HI. 77' ETr. NallasvamI Pillai, SJB.
c. 1250. Arulnandi Sivacharya ; 14. Siva-jtidna-siddhi^ on No. 13.
ETr. NallasvamI Pillai, Madras, 1913 ; partial GTr. in Schomerus, SS.\
15. Irupdvirupathu (mainly on Pdsa) : 20 stanzas. ETr. Siddhdnta
Dlpikd^ xiii.
C c
386 BIBLIOGRAPHY
o. 1260. Manavachakam Kadandan; 16. l/nmat-vilak^a, the L]ghid
Reality : 54 quatrains : ETr. Nallasvami Pijlaj, SSS. 5.
o. 1280. Marai Jnana-sambandha; 17. Saiva-samaya-neri, ETr.
Siddhdnta LHpikd^ vi.
o. 1318. UmapatiSivacharya: Pope, 7'F.xciii; \S, Siva-frakdsai 100
quatrains: ETr. Hoisington, /^O^*. 1854; 19. Tiru-arul-payan: 100
couplets on divine grace: ETr. Pope, TV, xxxixff. ; 20. Vind-venbai
13 quatrains ; ETr. Siddhdnta Dipikd^ xiv. 21. Porripakrodai : 190 lines;
23k,Kodi'Kavi\ 4 quatrains: ETr. Siddhdnta Dipika, xiv. 23. Nmchu-
vidu'tutui 258 lines; 24. Unmai-neri-vilakkai 6 quatrains; 25. Sak-
kalpa-nirdkarana : 20 stanzas ; 26. Koyil Purdnam,
15th o. Kannudaiya Vallalar; 27. Olivil-odukkam: theological treatise
in verse.
Harly 18th. Tayumanavar; 28. Hymns: a few ETrs. in Siddhdnta
Dtpikd^ i ff. ; in Arunachalam, STT, 28 ; in Prabuddha Bhdrata during
1913 ; and one ETr. Bamett, HL 85.
Died 1785. .*5iva-jnana-yogi : BMCTB,\\\ ^^.Drdvida-maJid-bhdskya^
on No. 13 : ETr. Nallasvami Pillai, SJB,,, 30. Laghu ftka on No. 13;
31. Siddhdnta-dtpam : Tamil Tr. of the Saiva-siddhdnta-dipikd^ No.^i
p. 385; 82. TattuvaPirakdsa{\i^,T2itt\Qr^r2iVi3iii)\ 33. Tattuva Kattald^
a summary of No. 32 : ETr. by Hoisington, y!/4 06*. 1854.
4. KASHMIR ^AIVISM.
Intro. : Chatterji, KS. Literature in Sanskrit.
Early 9th. Vasugupta ; 1. Siva-sutras : KS. 8, 37.
Iiate 9th. Kallata ; 2. Spanda-kdrikds : KS, 1 5, 37.
End 9th. Somananda ; ^.Siva-drishti : KS, 17, 37.
Early 10th. Utpalacharya ; 4. Pratyabhijnd-kdrikds^ with a comm. :
a summary of the teaching of 3 : A^S*. 19, 38.
Mid 10th. Ramakantha ; 5. Spanda-vivriti, on 2 : KS. 16, 28, 38.
Iiate 10th. Utpala Vaishnava; 6. Spanda-pradipikd^ on 2 : KS, 16, 38.
o. 1000. Abhinava Gupta ; 7. Pratyabhtjnd-vimarsini, on 4 ; 8. Pra-
tyabhijhd-vivriti'Vimarsinly on 4 : A'.S'.20, 38 ; 9. Tantrdloka : deals with
^aivism in all its aspects : KS, 21 ; 10. Paramdrthasdra : a sketch of
Kashmir Saivism in 105 verses. Text and ETr. Bamett, JRAS, 1910,
7^7 'y 1338. Based on the Adhdra-kdrikdSy about which there is a dis-
pute : JRAS. 1 912, 257, 474; Chatterji, A^S". 11, n. 3.
11th o. Bhaskara ; 11. Siva-sutra-vdrttika, on i : KS. 9, 39.
11th o. Kshemaraja ; 12. Siva'Sutra-vimarsinij on i : KS. 9, 35, 39.
ETr. P. T. ^rinivasa Iyengar, Allahabad, 1912 : see Barnett, ^^-45". 19121
1 107 ; 13. Spanda-sandoha : is on the first sutra of 2, but explains the
teaching of the whole work : KS. 16.
11th o. Yogaraja ; 14. Comm. on 10. ETr. Bamett, y/?-4 5*. 1910, 718.
Late 12th. Jayaratha ; 15. Comm. on 9 : KS. 39.
14th o. Lai Ded ; 16. Kashmiri verses : Grierson, y-^-^.S". 1918, 157.
1380. Madhava ; 17. Essay in SDS, viii : Cowell, 128.
18th o. ^ivopadhyaya ; 18. Comm. on Vijndna Bhairafva T.antra',
Chatterji, KS, 39.
5. viRA Saivism.
Gen. Intro.: Enthoven, ERE, vii. 71 ; Bhandarkar, VS. 131: Rice,
KL, chs. iv and v. Books in Sanskrit, unless otherwise describea.
1
BIBLIOGRAPHY 387
1. Vira Saiva documents in the Agamas.
c. 1200. Somanatha of Palakurki ; 2. Basava P., Tel. ; 3. Life of Pan-
ditdrddhya in mixed Sansk. and Tel. verse.
4. Vachanas^ sermons in Kan. ; Rice, KL. 38 ; 40. ETr. of
those attributed to Basava in MS. by Rao Sahib P. G. Halkatti, Bijapur.
c. 1360. Raghavanka ; 5. Siddkardma /*., Kan. : Rice, KL, 43.
14th c. ^iva-yogl ; 6. Siddhdnta-sikhdmani, Tam. Tr., no. 8, p. 383^
above.
1369. Bhima Kavi ; 7. Basava P,y Kan., based on No. 2 : Rice, fCL, 44 :
abridged ETr. V^iirth/fBBBAS, 1865-6 ; ETr. of one piece, Rice, ATL. 47.
c. 1870. Mallanarya ; 8. Vtrasaivdmrita,^ Kan. : Rice, KL, 49.
c. 1385. Padmanahka ; 9. Padmardja P., Kan. : Rice, KL» 48.
c. 1400» Singi-raja; 10. Mahd Basava Charitra^ Kan. : Rice, KL, 49.
For Tel. Tr., see No. 17, below, and for Tam. Tr. see No. 24, below.
c. 1400. Maritontadarya ; 11. Comm. on No. 6 ; 12. Kaivalya-sdra,
15th c. Channa Vrishabhendra SvamI ; 13. Vtra-Saiva-sarvotkarsha-
pradipikd.
15th c. Gurudeva ; 14. Vtra'Saiva-dchdra'pradtpikd,
15th c. Tontad Siddhesvara ; 15. Vlra'Saiva-pradipikd,
c. 1460. Chamarasa ; 16. Prabhu-lihga-lild^ Xan. : Rice, KL, 49 :
Tam. Tr., no. 7, p. 383, above. 17. Tel. Tr. of No. 10.
c. 1585. Virupaksha ; 18. Channa Basava P,y Kan. : Rice, KL, 49. 5> ^, 3>
Abridged ETr. Wurih^fBBRAS. 1805-6.
17th c. Channa Sada^iva Yogi^vara ; 19. Siva-yoga-pradipikd.
17th c. l^iva-guna-yogi, or Nija-guna-^iva-yogT ; 20. Viveka-chintd-
mani, ^aiva encyclopaedia ; 21. Kan. Tr. of No. 20 : Rice, KL, 68.
1657. ShadaksharaDeva: Rice, AX. 62, 67 ; 22. Rdjakkhara Vildsa,
famous Kan. literary work ; 28. Sabara-Sahkara-vildsa (Kan.) : Partial
ETr. Barnett, BSOSL. 1918, p. 4.
17th c. Siva Praka^a ; 24. Tamil Tr. of No. 10.
18th c. Monappa ; 25. Vtra'Saiva-dchdra-kaustubha,
The dates of the following works seem* to be uncertain :
Sripati Panditaradhya ; 26. Srlkara Bhdshya on Veddnta-sutras,
First half published in Telugu character at Secunderabad, 1893.
Svaprabhananda Sivacharya; ^.Sivadvaita-manjartx Siddhdnta
Dipikdy xi. 128.
Nanjanacharya ; 28. Vedasdra- Vira'Saiva'Ckinidmani,
Nandikesvara ; 29. Lihga-dhdrand-chandrikd (Semi-Lingayat).
Siddhavlrana ; 30. Anddi- ViraSaiva-sdra-sahgraka,
Both authors and dates of the following seem to be unknown.
31. Vtra-Saiva-mata'Sahgraha\ 82. Vtra-Satva-chandrikd^ 33.
Vlra-Saiva-dharma-siromani ; 34. VlraSaiva-maia'prakdsikd.
6. THE SITTARS.
c. 16th. Patirakiriyar ; 1. Hymns: ETr. Gover, i^S'5/. 158.
Pattinattu Pi!!ai(?); 2. Hymns: ETrs. Gover, i^95/. 160.
c. 17th. 3. Siva-vdkyam : ETrs. Gover, FSSL 170; Barnett, HL 88.
17th c. Tattuva Rayar ; 4. Adahgan-murau
^ c 2
388
BIBLIOGRAPHY
X. Literature of the Sect of Brahma.
Markandeya P. xlv. 27-35; ^vi. 14-21. ETr. Pargiter, MP.
Padma P, i : see Wilson, Warks^ iii. 24.
xL Sakta Literature. .
Qen. Intro. : No historical intro. exists. The best intro. on the
teaching and the cult is Avalon's Intro., TGL. See also his art. in MeL
Rev,^ Aug. and Sept., 191 7. On the literature, see an anonymous artide
in SJM. iii. 1897.
Early Documents:
3rd or 4th. 1. MBH, IV. vi: Mazumdar, y^^^". 1906, 355; Jacobi,
ERE. V. 1 17. ETr. Avalon, HG. 69 ; 2. MBH. VI. xxiii : ETrs. AvaloD,
HG, 115 ; Muir, 6^57; iv. 432.
4th e. 3. Harivamsa^ ch. lix : ETr. Avalon, HG. 82 ; 4. Harivama^
ch. clxvi.
5th or 6th e. 5. Chandi-^pidhdtmya in Markandeya P, : Veraac
versions: Bengali, i6thc; Punjabi, 17th c; Malayalim, 17th c ETr.
Pargiter, MP,\ Wortham,/^-45. xiii. 355.
Early 7th. Bana ; 6. Chandisataka : Text, ETr., &c., Quackenbos^
SPM,
Tantrik Works:
Qen. Intro.j Lists of 64 Tantras in Vdmakesvara 7^, ICulackiA-
mani T., and Agama-tattva-viidsa, vnXh an extra list of 83 in the last-
mentioned work ; and a list in three sections, each containing 64, a
Mahdsiddhasara T. : Avalon, TT, I. ii ; iv. 4 ; Dutt, MT. v. For
early MSS., see H. P. Sastri, i and ii. For ^akta Yoga, see Avalon, Tk
Serpent Power ^ London, 1919.
7th c. 7. Kubjikdmata T,: H. P. Sastrl, I. Ixxxvii.
8. Pdramesvaramata T.i H. P. Sastrl, I. Iii, Ixxvii ; II. xxi.
Early 8th. Bhavabhuti ; 9. Mdlati-Mddhava : Rapson, ERE. iv. 886:
ETr. Wilson, TH. 1 1, i.
10. Nisvdsatattva S.: H. P. ^astn, I. Ixxvii.
11. MaJidkaulajftdna-vinirnaya', H. P. ^astri, II. xviii.
12. Rudra-ydmala T. : H. P. Sastrl, II. xxii ; Wilson, Sects^ 25811
13. Vdniakesvara T, : said to be a part of the EhMnwa-ydtmua L 1
Bhandarkar, R. 1883-4, 87 ; Iyengar, Outlines^ 142; H. P. i^astrf, l.lniii;|
II. xxiii ; Avalon, TT. iv. 4.
14. Kulachuddmani T. : Text, intro., analysis, and ETrs. of t»»|
hymns, Avalon, TT, iv.
15. Kdlajhdna T, : Analysis : H. P. Sastrl, II. xx.
16. Bhutaddmara T, : on magic : H. P. ^stri, II. xxvi.
17. Kuldrnava : Text and Intro., Avalon, TT. v.
18. Prapahchasdra T.: Text, intro., analysis, and ETrs. of tlnvl
hymns, Avalon, TT. iii.
19. Parasurdma-Bhdrgava-sutras ', a text-book of the KMii|
Marga : SJM. iii, 1897.
^0, Subhagodaya: ode in 52 stanzas attributed to GaudapSdi:{
see R. A. Sastrl, Anandalahari, 14; Iyengar, Outlines, 143, 173.'
21. Saundaryalaharli Partial ETr. Avalon, Wave of BUss, Ijbi^\
don, 191 7 ; Partial ETr. R. A. Sastrl, AnandataAari.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 389
11th c. Lakshmana Desika; 22. Sdradd-tilaka T. : Intro, and analysis,
Ewing,y^05. xxiii. i. 65.
6akta Upanishads : 23. Tripuratapantya\ 2^. Devi; 26. Tripura\
26. Bhavand ; 27. Kaula ; 28. Shatchakra ; see above, p. 364, Nos. 92, 93,
94, 96, 51, 122 ; and Saktaic Literature^ SJM\ iii, 1897.
Later Tantras written in Bengal:
29. Kdlikd 71 : ETr. of the Blood Chapter by Blaqui^re, AR, v.
See ERE. ii. 134, 491. ,
1499. Purnananda SvamI ; 30. Sritattvachintdmani : of this work part
of Patala vi is called Shatchakra Nirilpana : ETr., Intro, and comm.,
Avalon, The Serpent Power^ London, 1 91 9.
c. 16th. 81. Yogini T, ; MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS.
c. 16th. 32. Visvasdra T,
33. Vdrdhi T.
34. Kdmadhenu 7". : MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS.
Iiate 18th. 35. Mahdnirvdna T, : ETr. of pt. i, Dutt, Calcutta, 1900 ;
ETr. of pt. i, with valuable Intro, and Comm., Avalon, TGL,
36. Mahdsiddhasdra T,
37. Agama-tattva-vildsa : contains two lists of Tantras : Dutt,
3; J/Z"., p. V.
38. Mantrakosa : MS. ETr. Munro, in Macdonald MSS.
1812. Krishnananda Vaglsa ; 39. Tantrasdra : Partial ETr. Mac
- CuUoch, in Macdonald MSS.
"^^ 1821. 40. Prdnatoshinl T,
Brahmananda Giri ; 41. Sdhtdnanda-tarahgim : MS. analysis,
i? Anderson, in Macdonald MSS.
. Right-hand Literature :
42. Devi Bhdgavata Upapurdna : SJM, iii, 1897.
43. Agastya-sutra I SJM, iii, 1897.
44. Lalitopdkhydna in Brahmdnda P.
45. Lalitdtrisati in Brahmdnda P,
46. Lalitdsahasrandma in Brahmdnda P,\ ETr. R. A. Sastri,
JLalttd,
47. Suta S. in Skanda P.
48. Kavacha, 50 couplets ; 49. Kilaka, 14 couplets ; both from
the Vardha P, ,
The five Samhitas ; 50. Vasishtha ; 51. Sanaka ; 62. Suka ; 53.
Sanandana ; 54. Sanatkumdra : Iyengar, Outlines^ 139; R, A. Sastri,
Anandaiahariy 5, 61.
o. 1300. Lakshmldhara ^; 55. Comm. on No. 21.
15th or 16th. Bhatta Nllakantha ; 56. Tilakay Comm. on No. 42.
1589. yi2i}ci\^\\2LX2L\"fn, Maniramahodadhi\ lOM, SSs.
o. 1600. Appaya Dikshita ; 58. Comm. on No. 21.
Early 18th. Bhaskararaya ; 59. Varivasyd-rahasya : Bhandarkar, R,
1883-4, %% ; 60. Bhdsya on No. 46, written, A. D. 1729 : ETr. R. A. Sastri,
Lalitd'j 61. Seiubandha, Comm. on No. 13, written, A.D. 1733; 62.
Comms. on Upanishads : see p. 365.
Mid 18th. Umanandanatha ; 63. Comm. on No. 19.
1 Vidyabhushana says he flourished under Prata arudra oi Orissa, 1504-32 : see
art., Calcutta Review , July 1915-
390 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sakta Lit. in the Vernaculars:
Bengali', Sen, HBLL, 119, 225, 252, 335, 342, 656, 662, 712, loc
ETr. of a large part of Mukundarama's Chandt-mahgal^ CoweWf JASj
Dec. 1902.
Gujardtt\ Jhaveri, MGL, 46, 149, 192.
Marathi : Acworth, EM, xxxiii.
xii. Saura Literature.
Gen. Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS. 151 ; Chanda, lAR. 160, 223.
1. The Gayatrl: Rik, III. Ixii. 10.
2. Many hymns to the Sun in the Vedas.
3rd or 4th. 3. MBH. III. iii. 15-79; VI. xi. 35-8; VII. hood
14-16.
4. Rdmdyana^ vi. 106 : called the Aditya-hridaya,
A.D. 473-4. 5. Inscription at Mandasor: Cli, iii. 80.
6. Mdrkandeya P,, chs. cii-cx.
7. Bhavishya /*., Brahma Parvan, chs. 139-41 : Wilson, VP, \
382 ; Bhandarkar, VS. 153.
c. A.D. 550. Varaha Mihira ; 8, Brihat S, Iviii ; Ix. 19. ETr. Ken
JRAS, 1870, 430.
Early 7th. Mayura ; 9. Surya-sataka : Quackenbos, SPM.
10. Saura S,\ H. P. Sastrl, I. Ixxvi. Cf. Schrader, IP AS, l\
No. 203.
11. Samba Upapurdna: Alberuni, Sachau, i. 130; Bloch, ZDMi
Ixiv. 733 ; Vasu, Mayurabhanjay iii.
12. Surya U, : ETr. Kennedy, NM, 346.
A.D. 1137. Gangadhara; 13. Inscription at Gaya, EI. ii. 338. "
14. Brahma P, xxi-xxviii.
15. Song to the Sun in Bengali : Sen, VSP, i. 23-4 ; 164-71.
xiii. Ganapatya Literature.
Gen. Intro.: Bhandarkar, VS, 147; Grierson, ERE. vi. 175.
1. Varadaidpamya U,\ Jacob, EAU, 12: see No. 120, p. 364, above.
2. Ganapati U, : Weber, HIL, 170. ETr. Kennedy, HM. 493. So
No. loi, p. 364, above.
3. Agni A, chs. Ixxi, cccxiii.
4. Garuda P., ch. xxiv.
5. Ganesa Upaptirdna\ Eggeling, lOM, 3349; Stevenson, /7?i45
1846, 319; Grierson, ERE, vi. 176.
6. Mudgala Upapurdna : Krishna Sastrl, SI I, 173 ; lOAf,^ no. 35708
III. BUDDHIST LITERATURE.
i. Buddhism as a Whole.
Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion^ London, 1 910; Saunders, 7>
Story of Buddhism, London, 1916 ; Macdonell, ERE, vii. 200 ; Madhaf^
^Z^^-. ii: ETr. Cowell, 12.
1. Assam : Scott, ERE, iii. 37.
2. Burma : Scott, ERE, iii. 37 ; Bigandet, Life or Legend of GaudaiH'
London, 191 4.
3. Cambodia : Cabaton, ERE, iii. 156.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 391
4. Ceylon : Rhys Davids, ERE, iii. 331 ; Copplestone, Buddhism
Primitive and Present^ in Magadha and Ceylon^ London, 1908.
5. China ; de Groot, ERE, iii. 552. The Canon : Nanjio, Oxford,
\^2>i\JRAS, 191 1, 562.
6. Corea : Courant, ERE, vii. 757 ; Starr, Korean Buddhism, Boston,
1918.
7. Japan : Ashida, ERE. vii. 482 ; Griffis, The Religions of Japan^
New York, 1904; Reischauer, Studies in Japanese Buddhism^ New York,
1917.
8. Java : Kern, ERE. vii. 495.
9. Mongolia : Parker, ERE. viii. 807. The Canon : Waddell, ERE.
vii. 786.
10. Orissa: Vasu, The Archaeological Survey of MayQrabhanj\ i,
Calcutta, 1911 ; Vasu, The Modern Buddhism and its Followers in
Orissa, Calcutta, 1911.
11. Sumatra ; Kern, ERE, vii. 495.
12. Tibet : Wadddl, The Buddhism of Tibet, London, 1895 ; ERE. vii.
784. Analysis of the Canon, Feer, Annates du Musie Guimet, ii. FTrs.
from the Canon, Feer, Annates du Musee Guimet, v.
ii. Early Buddhism and the Pali Canon.
Qen. Intro. : Sketch of Early Buddhism : Kern, MIB. ; Rhys
Davids, HIB, The Founder : Oldenberg, Buddha ; Saint-Hilaire, The
Buddha and his Religion^ London, 1914 ; Kern, MIB, \ Warren, BT.
Geden, ^^^. ii. 881. Connexions with Hinduism : Oldenberg, Z £/.
Poussin, Opinions, ch. v. System: Poussin ; , WW. ; Warren, BT,
Seidenstiicker, PBU, \ Ascetic orders : Oldenberg, Buddha^ 332 ; Kern,
MIB, Councils : Poussin, ERE, iv. 179. ,
Pali Canon ; History and Chronology : Wintemitz, 1 1, i ; Mac-
donell, ERE. viii. 85 ; Poussin, Opinions, ch. i ; Keith, /^^^S". 1909, 577 ;
Waddell, y/?^ 5. 19 14, 661. Anthologies in ETr. Saunders, The Heart
of Buddhism, London, 191 5; Thomas, Buddhist Scriptures^ London,
1913 ; in GTr. Neumann, Buddhistische Anthologie, Leiden, 1892.
L VinayaP. : Wintemitz, ii. i- 17. \, Suttavibhahga \ %Mah&vagga\
3. Chullavagga : Intro, and ETr. Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, 5^£. xiii.
xvii, XX. ETr. of sections, Warren, BT, 4. Parivdra : Wintemitz, IL i.
26; SBE. xiii. xxiv. Kem, MIB, in.
II. SuiTA P. : Wintemitz, II. i. 26; Rhys Davids, SBB. ii, Intro.;
SBE, xi, Intro. The bulk in CTr. : Nanjio, cols. 127-80 ; a few suttas in
Tibetan, AMG. ii. 288.
a. Dtghanikdya : 34 long sermons : Nos. 1-23 in ETr. with intros., Rhys
Davids and Oldenberg, SBB, ii, iii ; Nos. I-13 in GTr. Neumann, Miin-
chen, 1907; Nos. 13, 16, 17 in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE, xi. No. 22 in
ETr. Warren, BT, 353; fragments of other suttas, ib.
b. Majjhimanikdya : 152 sermons and dialogues of medium length.
Complete GTr. Neumann, 3 Bde., Leipzig, 1896-1902. Nos. 26, 63, 72
in ETr. Warren, BT, 331, 117, 123 ; also portions of 38, 44, pp. 183, 187,
303. Several suttas in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE. xi. Suttas 1-50 in ETr.
by the Bhikku Silachara, London.
39^
BIBLIOGRAPHY
c. Samyuttanikdya : 56 groups of discourses. Partial ETr. Mrs. Rhys
Davids, The Book of the Kindred Sayings^ Oxford, 1917 ; Nos. iv and?
in GTr. Windisch, Mara und Buddha ; No. v in ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids,
FEB, i. 180-91 : numerous portions in ETr. in Warren, BT.; No. LVI.ii
in ETr. Rhys Davids, SBE, xi. 133 and in YTr,¥^ery Journal Asiatiqmi
1870.
d. Ahguttaranikaya : 2,008 discourses : in GTr. Bhikkhu Nanatiloka,
Leipzig und Breslau, 191 1. Three sections in ETr. Gooneratne, Galle,
Ceylon, 191 3. Many portions in ETr. Warren, BT.
e. Khuddakanikdya : 1 5 miscellaneous works.
1. Khuddakapatha : 9 short texts for neophyte monks : Intro. : Winte^
nitz, II. i. 61. Text and ETr. Childers, JRAS. 1870, 309. GTr.
Seidenstiicker, Breslau, 1910.
2. Dhatnmapada : 423 stanzas on the ethical and religious life. Intro.:
Winternitz, II. i. 63 ; Miiller, SBE. x. ETr. Miiller, SBE. x; ETr. Wagi-
swara and Saunders {The Buddha's Way of F/Wx^), London, 1912. GTr.
Neumann {JDer Wahrheitspfad)y Leipzig, 1893 : GTr. Schultze, Leipzig,
1906 ; FTr. Fernando Hu, Paris, 1878 ; ITr. Pavolini, Milan, 1908.
3. Udanay i. e. inspired utterances : 80 lofty verses, each preceded by
a narrative as to how it came to be uttered. Intro. : Winternitz, 11. i.66.
ETr. Strong, London, 1902. No. iv. 4 in ETr. Warren, BT. yi^ ETr.
of Tibetan Uddnavarga^ Rockhill, London, 1892.
4. Itivuttakay i. e. utterances of the Buddha : Intro. : Winternitz, II. L
68 ; ETr. Moore, New York, 1908.
6. Suttanipdia : vtxst. Contains some remnants of primitive Buddhism,
Fausboll. Intro.: Winternitz, II. i. 71 ; Fausb5ll, 5"^^. x, pt. 2; Olden-
berg, Aus dem Alien Indien^ Berlin, 1910, 25; Keith,y;^^5*. 1910,932;
\\.Qtxxi\^, JRAS. 1917, 134. ETr. Fausboll, op. cit.; GTr. Neumann,
Leipzig, 191 1 : GTr. Pfungst, Strassburg, 1889.
6. VimdnavatthUy i. e. stories of the palaces of the gods.
7. Petavatihu, i. e. ghost stories. These two are collections of late
narratives, illustrating the working of karma.
8. Theragdthd : Hymns of the Monks; and 9. Thertg&tha : Hymnsof
the Nuns: Intro. : Winternitz, II. i. 79; Oldenljerg, Literatur des AUtn
Indien, 100. Intro, and ETr. Mrs. Rhys Davids, PEB, i and ii.
10. Jdtaka : 547 previous lives of the Buddha. Intro. : Winternitz, IL
i. 89; Cowell, The Jdtaka^ 6 vols., Cambridge, 1895-1907 ; RhysDavidi)
BL 189; Y^^Xy Journal Asiatique^ 1875, 1895, ^^97* ETr. Cowellopi
cit. ; ETrs. Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, London, 1880 ; Select
Jatakas in ETr. : Francis and Thomas, /J/rt^fl TaleSy Cambridge, 19161
GTr. Dutoit, Leipzig. Nos. 68, 82, 189, 244, 316, in ETr. Warxen, BT^
pp. 267, 269, 262, 153, 274.
11. Niddesa : comm. to second part of No. 5.
12. Patisambhiddmagga : of the same character as the Abhidhamma :
see below.
13. Apaddna : 590 legends of Buddhist saints : Intro. : Rhys DavidSi
ERE. i. 603 ; Winternitz, II. i. 128.
14. Buddhavamsa : Legends of the 24 Buddhas : Winternitz, II. i. 199^
15. Chariydpitaka : 35 previous lives of the Buddha, meant to illustrate
the virtues of the Buddhas.
III. Abhidhamma P.: Character: Mrs. Rhys Davids, EREA. 19
Winternitz, II. i. 134. Age and origin : Poussin, Opinions^ 30-44; 166.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 393
1. Dhamma-sahgani : classifies ethical and psychological facts. ETr.
Mrs. Rhys Davids, A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics ^XjyrAQn^
1900.
2. F/^^w^«: a continuation of No. I.
3. Kathdvatthu : a manual of controversy for Buddhist monks, attri-
buted to Tissa Moggaliputta of the 3rd cent. B.C.: Oldenberg, ZDMG.
lii. 633 ; Poussin, ERE, iv. 184 ; JRAS. 1910, 413. Analysis, Rhys
Davids, JRAS, 1892. ETr. Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids,
Points of Controversy, London, 191 5.
4. Puggalapannatti : Wintemitz, II. i. 135. GTr. Nyanatiloka,
Breslau, 1910.
5. Dhdtu'kathd : catechism of psychology.
e. Yamaka : book of double questions.
7. Patthdna,
iii. Later Sthavira Literature in Pali.
Gen. Intro. : Wintemitz, II. i. 146; Mabel Bode, The Pali Literature
of Burma y London, 1909.
1. Milinda-pahha : Intro. : Rhys Davids, SBE, xxxv ; ERE, viii.
631 ; Gar be, Beitrdge (Berlin, 1903), p. 95 ; Schrader, Die Fragen des
Kbnigs Menandros, Berlin, 1905 ; Wintemitz, II. i. 139. ETr. Rhys
Davids, SBE. xxxv-vi ; Partial GTr. Schrader, op. cit. ; sections in ETr.
Warren, BT,
2. Niddnakathd : first part of the comm. on the Jdtaka of the
Canon. Intro. : Wintemitz, II. i. 149. ETrs. Rhys Davids, BBS, 5 ; two
out of three sections in ETr. in Warren, BT, ^,
Isto. A.D. 3. Nettii dogmatic: Wintemitz, II. i. 163; Poussin,
Opinions, 178, n. 2.
4th c. 4. Dtpavamsa, Intro. : Geiger, Dipavamsa und Mahdvamsa,
Leipzig, 1905 ; Wintemitz, 11. i. 168. Intro, and ETr, Oldenberg, Dipa-
vamsa, London, 1879.
6th o. Buddhaghosha : Wintemitz, II. i. 152: 5. Visuddhimagga :
Intro.: Wintemitz, II. i. 164. Full analysis, WsLrren, fPTS, 1891-3.
Many passages in ETr. in Warren, BT,; 6. Samantapdsddikd : comm. on
the Vinaya ; 7. Sumahgalavildsini : comm. on the Dtghanikdya : Winter-
nitz, II. i. 157; S. PapanchasHdam : comm. on the Majjhimanikdya\
9. Sdratthapakdsini : comm. on the Samyuttanikdya ; 10. Manoratha-
piirani : comm. on the Ahguttaranikdya; Wintemitz, II. i. 158.
W. Jdtakatthavannand : comm. on i\itJdtaka-ho6k, and 12. Comm.
on the Dhammapada, both ascribed to Buddhaghosha: Wintemitz,
II. i. 154.
Late 5th. Mahanama; IS, Afahdvamsa : Intro.: Geiger, Dtpavamsa
und Mahdvamsa, Leipzig, 1905 ; Wintemitz, 11. i. 170. ETr. Geiger and
Mabel Bode, London, 1912.
Late 10th. Upatissa ; 14. Bodhivamsa, history of the Bodhi tree ;
Wintemitz, II. i. 175.
12th c. Anuruddha, a Burmese monk ; 15. Abhidhammatthascimgaha :
a most important work on Buddhist psychology and ethics. Wintemitz,
II. i. 177. ETr. Shwe Zan Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids, London, 191a
13th c. Dhammakitti ; 16. Ddthdvamsa, history of the Buddha*s
tooth. Wintemitz, II. i. 175.
394 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Idth c. Vachissara ; 17. ThUpavamsa^ history of the Stupa. Winter-
nitz, II. i. 176.
15th c. Srlavamsa ; 18. Buddhdlamkdra : founded on the story of
Sumedha (Warren, BT. 5) in the Niddnakathdi Wintemitz, II. i. 181.
18th c. 19. Yogdvdchdra : ETr. Woodward, London, 19 16.
1770. 20. Mahdlamkdravatthu, a biography of the Buddha. There b
a Burmese Tr. of this work, of which Bigandet's Life or Legend of Gaudama^
London, 19 14, is an ETr.
iv. Hinayana Literature in Sanskrit or Mixed Sanskrit.
A. BUDDHIST SANSKRIT.
Intro. : Franke, Pali und Sanskrit^ Strassburg, 1902 : Review, Rhyi
Davids, /^-45. 1903, 398; Rapson, //?-4 5. 1904,435 ; discussion, /^i45.
1904, 457. Senart, Intro, to Mahdvastu\ Oldenberg, Gott, Nach,^ 1913,
Heft 2; \As\^fA, 1912; Winternitz, II. i. 181.
B. MAHASANGHIKAS.
Intro. : Wintemitz, II. i. 187 ; Anesaki, ERE, iv. 836.
a. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, col. 386; Nos. 11 19, 1150.
b. Sutta P., Ekottardgama : Nanjio, 543 ; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 836.
C. MAHlSASAKAS.
a. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, 1122.
D. LOKOTTARAVADINS.
Intro. : Wintemitz, II. i. 183, 187 ; Poussin, ERE. ii. 740.
a. Vinaya P.
1st c. Mahdvastu: Winternitz, II. i. 187; Poussin, ERE. viiL 328^
326 n.; Opinions, 265, 308; Mitra, 115.
E. SARVASTIVADINS.
Intro. : Poussin, V. et V, ; Opinions, 30, 166, 177 ; Wintemitx, II.LlK
a. Vinaya P.: Nanjio, 1115, 1127, 1132, 1135, 1136, 1160, 1161,1161
Nanjio, 1 160 : Sansk. text : fA. 1913, ii. 465 ; Hoemle, MRBL. 3579 35f
Many Avadana works are dependent on this Vinaya : Wintemitx, ILL
217, 222.
b. Sutta P. : Hoernle, MRBL, 166.
c. Abhidharma p. : Takakusuj/PTIS". 1905, 67.
Katyayanlputra; \,fhdnaprasthdna-sdstra\ Nanjio, 1 273; coiiiibs,{
Nanjio, 1263, 1264.
Sariputra ; 2. Abhidharma'sahgiiiparydyapdda, Nanjio, 12761
Vasumitra; 3. Abhidharma-prakaranapdda, Nanjio, 1277.
Devasarman ; 4. Abhidkarma-vijhdnakdyapdday Nanjio, 1281.
Vasumitra; 5. Abhidhanna-dhdtukdyapdda, Nasjio, 1282.
Mahamaudgalyayana ; 6. Abhidharma-skandhapada^ Nanjio, I3)& j
Mahamaudgalyayana ; 7. Prajnaptipdda-sdstra^ Nanjio» 13 17.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 395
On the first section of no. 7 are based three famous dependent works,
namely :
Early 4th. Vasubandhu ; 8. Abhidharma-kosay a set of verses, Kdri-
kds, Nanjio, 1270, with a commentary, Nanjio, 1267, 1269. Poussin,
V. et V. ; £/^E, iv. 131 ; L^vi, ERE. i. 20 ; Wintemitz, II. i. 257.
4th c. Sanghabhadra; 9. Nydydnusara-sastra^ a criticism of 8 : Nanjio,
1265.
Yasomitra ; 10. Abidharma-kosa-vydkhydy a comm. on 8 : Nanjio, 1267 ;
Poussin, V. et K ; ERE. iv. 131 ; Mitra, 3 ; L^vi, ERE. i. 20; Jacobi,
ERE. ii. 201 ; Winternitz, II. i. 257.
F. MOLASARVASTIVADINS.
ViNAYA P.: Nanjio, col. 441.
Prdtimoksha-siitra : ETr. from the Tibetan, Vidyabhushana,
JASB. 191 5.
G. DHARMAGUPTAS.
VinayaP.: Nanjio, 1117, 1128; Hoernle,iW?i?Z.4,9. Abhinishkra-
fnana-sutra\ Nanjio, 680; Wintemitz, II. i. 194. ETr. of the Chinese
Text, Beal, The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha^ London, 1875.
H. SAMMITlYAS.
Vinaya p.: Nanjio, 1139.
V. Literary Works, partly Hinayanay partly Mahayantt.
c. 100. Matricheta : Thomas, ERE. viii. 495 ; Vidyabhushana, JASB,
1910, 425; Winternitz, II. i. 211 ; 1. Varnandrhavarnana^ a. hymn in
400 stanzas : Intro, and ETr. Thomas, lA. xxxiv. 145 ; 2. Satapanchd-
sika-stoira, a hymn in 150 stanzas: Nanjio, 1456; Hoemle, MRBL, 58 ;
3. Mahdrdjakanika-lekhay a letter to King Kanishka. Other works : see
ERE. viii. 495.
Early 2nd. Asvaghosha : Anesaki, ERE. ii. 159 ; JRAS, 19 14, 747 ;
Winternitz, II. i. 201 ; Nanjio, col. 369; 4. Buddhacharita i Intro, and
ETr. Cowell, SBE. xlix; Nanjio, 1351 ; 5. Saundardnanda-Kdvyai
H. P. ^astri, JASB. 1904, 47; Wintemitz, II. i. 206; 6. Sutrdlatkkdrax
FTr. Hiiber, Paris, 1908; Winternitz, II. i. 208; 7. Vajrasilcht and
8. Mahay dnasraddhotpdda'. of doubtful authenticity, Wintemitz, II. i. 209.
2nd c. Nandlsvara ; 9. Avaddnasataka i Full summary, Milra, 17:
Winternitz, II. i. 216; Nanjio, 1^24; JRAS. 1915, 505; AMG. ii. 284.
FTr. AMG. xviii.
10. Karmasatakai Wintemitz, II. i. 221 ; AMG. ii. 282.
c. 200. 11. Asokdvaddna : Mitra, 6 ; Winternitz, II. i. 224 ; Nanjio,
1344.
3rd c. 12. Divydvaddna : Wintemitz, II. i. 221.
4th c. Arya-sura; 13. Jdtaka-mdld '. Wintemitz, II, i. 212. ETr.
Speyer, London, 1895.
11th c Kshemendra ; 14. Avaddnakaipalatd : Full summary, Mitra,
57 : Wintemitz, II. i. 229. A number of the tales in "ETr.JBTS. i-v.
39^
BIBLIOGRAPHY
vi. The Mahayana.
Gen. Intro. : Poussin, ERE, viii. 330 ; Suzuki, Outlines of MakdyOna
Buddhism^ London, 1907 ; but see Poussin's Review, JRAS, 1908, 885.
AvalokiteSvara : Poussin, ERE, ii. 256.
A. Mahayana-sOtras.
1. Saddharma-pundartka : Poussin, ERE. viii. 145 ; Wintemitz, II. i.
230. Intro, and ETrJ Kern, SBE, xxi ; Anesaki, ERE, iv. 839 ; Nanjio,
I34i 139; AMG. ii. 242.
2. Lalitavistara : Winternitz, II. i. 194 ; partial ETr. Mitra, Calcutta,
188 1; FTr. Foucaux, Paris, 1892; Nanjio, 159, 160; AMG. ii. 223,
8. Karandavyuha (prose) : Poussin, ERE, i. 9J ; ii. 259 ; Winternitz,
II. i. 238 ; Mitra, loi ; Nanjio, 168, 782; AMG. ii. 246.
4. Gandavyuha^ or Buddhdvatamsaka-sutra; Winternitz, II. i. 242;
Mitra, 96*; Nanjio, 87 ; AMG, ii. 208 ; Griffis, 232, 242.
5. Karundpundarika : Mitra, 285 ; Nanjio, 142 ; AMG. ii. 242. Partial
FTr. AMG, v. 78, 153.
6. Megha-sutra (a rain-charm with many dhdrants) : Winternitz, II. i.
269; Bendall,/^^5. 1880, 386; Nanjio, 244; AMG. ii. 265.
7. Lahkdvatdra-siitra\ Analysis: Vidyabhushana, y^5!^. 1905, 159;
Winternitz, II. i. 243 ; Poussin, Opinions^ 392; Mitra, 113; Nanjio, 175;
AMG. ii. 237.
8. Samddhirdja: Winternitz, II. i. 244; full summary in Mitra, 207;
AMG. ii. 249.
9. Suvarnaprabhdsa : Winternitz, II. i. 245 ; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 839,
840; Mitra,'24i; Nanjio, 126; AMG, ii. 315; Hoemle, MRBL, 108.
10. Rdshtrapdlapariprichchhd : Winternitz, II. i. 246 ; Nanjio, 23 (18) ;
AMG, ii. 254.
11. Mahdsannipdta-sfitra : Nanjio, 61 ; Hoemle, MRBL. 100.
12. Bhadracharyd^ propitious practice : Poussin, ERE. ii. 749 n. ;
Nanjio, 1142; AMG, ii. 212.
13. Updli-pariprichckhd'sutra : Vinaya of the Mahayana; Ponssin,
Opinions^ 334n. ; Nanjio, 1 109 ; AMG. ii. 197-8. Parts in FTr. AMG. v. 81.
B. Books on the Ten Stages of the Bodhisattva Career.
See Poussin, ERE. ii. 743.
1. Dasabhumaka : a chap, of the Mahdvastu : Poussin, ERE. viii. 329;
ii. 744.
2. Dasabhumaka-sutra (Madhyamaka) : Poussin, ERE. ii. 7450.;
Nanjio, 1 10, 105, ^j.
3. Dasabhumtsvara : an enlarged edition of No. 2, found in Nepal,
Mitra, 81 ; Winternitz, II. i. 244 ; Poussin, ERE, ii. 745 n.
4. Bodhisativabhumi (Yogachara) : Poussin, ERE. ii. 745 n., 746, 747,
750; viii. 256. It is a portion of Asanga's Yogdchdreibhrnmi'-idstrai
Nanjio, 1170; Winternitz, II. i. 255. Summarized in English in Lt
Mus^on, N.S. vi. 38; vii. 213.
C. The Paradise Mahayana.
1. Sukhdvattvyuhax Winternitz, II. i. 240; Poussin, Opinians^ 266-73;
Intro, and ETr. Miiller, SBE, xlix; Nanjio, 23 (5) ; AMG. ii. 214.
2. SukhdvatJzyuha (the shorter text) : Intro, and ETr. Miiller, SBE.
xlix ; Nanjio, 200.
3. Ajuitdyurdhydna-sutra \ Intro. Miiller, SBE. xlix ; ETr. from
BIBLIOGRAPHY 397
Chinese, Takakusu, SBE. xlix. See also Poussin, ERE, ii. 25711.;
Nanjio, 198.
4. Vasubandhu, Aparamitdyus-sutra-sdstra : Nanjio, 1204.
D. Madhyamaka Literature.
Qen. Intro.: Poussin, ERE, viii. 235. For the Prajna-paramita
works, see Winternitz, II. i. 247, and for other works of the same class,
see Nanjio, 1-22.
1. The five-hundred Prajnd-Pdramitd-sutrax Nanjio, 16.
2. The ten-thousand PP, : Nanjio, 5.
3. The twenty-five-thousand PP, : Nanjio, 4.
4. The Vajrachchhedikd PP, (diamond-cutter) : Nanjio, 10. Intro,
and ETr. Miiller, SBE, xlix; Hoemle, MRBL, 176, 178, '2 14.
5. The Shorter^ and 6. The Longer PP, Hridaya; Nanjio, 19, 935.
Intro, and ETrs. Miiller, SBE, XLIX ; Anecdota Oxon,, i ; Winternitz,
II. i. 272.
Mid 2nd. Nagarjuna : Anesaki, ERE, iv. 838 ; Winternitz, II. i. 250 ;
Poussin, ERE, viii. 336 ; 7. Mulamadhyamaka^kdrikd : Poussin, ERE.
viii. 235 ; 8. Akutobhaydy a comm. on 7 by the author : Winternitz, II. i.
251. GTr. from the Tibetan, Walleser, Die mittlere Lehre des Ndgdrjuna^
Heidelberg, 191 1 ; 9. Yogdvatdra: H. P. Sastri, II. xii. Other works:
Nanjio, col. 370; Winternitz, II. i. 252; Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 70.
c. 300. Aryadeva: Winternitz, II. i. 254; Nanjio, col. 370 ; 10. Bo-
dhisattvayogdchdra Chatuhsataka : H. P. Sastri, y^ 6"^. July, 191 1 ; text,
edited by H. P. SastrT, Calcutta, 1914 : see BSOSL. 1918 ; 11. Svddhi-
shthdna-prabheda^ H. P. J^astri, ii. xiii.
c. 600. Bhavaviveka ; 12. Prajhd-pradtpa^ comm. on No. 7 : Nanjio,
1 185 ; Feer, Tandjour, Mdo. xviii. 44-299 ; Poussin, ERE, viii. 235 ;
13. Tarkajvdld, a criticism of the schools of philosophy : Walleser,
nAV,7) AMG. ii. 367.
Early 7th. Chandraklrti ; 14. Prasannapddd, conun. on No. 7 :
Poussin, ERE, viii. 235 ; 15. Mddhyamakdvatdra (gen. work on the
Mahayana system): Winternitz, II. .i. 251; Mitra, i; Poussin,
Opinions y 134; ERE, ii. 745, 748; viii. 332. FTr. from the Tibetan,
Poussin, Le Musdon^ viii ff. ; 16. Comm. on No. 10: text, H. P. iSastrl,
Calcutta, 19,14. ,
7th c. Santideva ; 17. Sikshdsamuchchhaya : WMntemitz, II. i. 260 ;
Poussin, Opinions^ 32 1 ; ERE, viii. 405, n. 2 ; 18. Bodhicharydvatdra :
Intro, and ETr. Barnett, The Path of Lights London, 1909. FTr. Poussin,
Paris, 1907. An old Bengali version: Sen^HBLL,^, See also Tawney,
JRAS, 1908, 583; Winternitz, II. i. 263; Poussin, ^^^. i. 97; ii. 184,
749. ,
8th c. Santarakshita ; 19. Madhyamakdlahkdrai Walleser, DAV, 18.
20. Tattvasahgraha^ Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 125.
E. VlJNANAVADA LITERATURE.
Gen. Intro. : Poussin, Opinions^ 186, 200 ; L^vi, Intro, to FTr. of
Mahdydna-sUtrdlamkdra \ Winternitz, II. i. 255.
c. 300. Asanga : Anesaki, ERE, ii. 62 ; Winternitz, II. i. 255 ; 1. Yoga-
chdrabhfunisdstra \ Nanjio, 1170, 1085; AMG, ii. 257. For the section
called Bodhisattvabhfimi^ see No. 4, p. 396 ; 2. Mahdydna-sHtrdlamkara :
Nanjio, 11 90. Intro, and FTr. L^vi, Paris, 1907, 191 1 ; 3. Uttaratanira:
Nanjio, 1236 : see Levi, op. cit. i.
39« BIBLIOGRAPHY
Early 4th. Vasubandhu : Winternitz, II. i. 256. Life in Chinese by
Paramartha, Nanjio, 1 463: FTr. Takakusu in "Poung Poo, v, 1904;
4. Vifhsakarikdprakarana : 20 verses on the Vijnanavada : FTr. from the
Tibetan, Poussin, Le Musion^ 191 2, 53 ; 5. Abhidharma kosa : see No. 8,
p. 395, above; Q.Paramdrthasafitati^ a polemic against the Sankhya: Win-
ternitz, II. i. 258; Takakusu,//?-45. 1905, 16 • Keith, SS. ^7 ; 7. Gathasah-
graha: Winternitz, II. i. 257^ ETr. Rockhill, Uddnavarga (London,
1 892), 213. Other works : N anj 10, cols. 37 i-i2 ; Vidyabhushanaj MSIL, 76.
8. Mahay dna-sraddhotpada-sdstra : Nanjio, 1 249 ; Winternitz, II.
i. 210; ETr. Suzuki, Chicago, 1900.
Early 7th. Chandragomin; 9. Sishyalekhadharma-kdvya : Winternitz,
II. i. 259; 10. Nydydlokasiddhi I Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 123.
Early 7th. Dhamiaklrti : Keith, /^^5. 19*16, 380.
vii. [§akta Bnddhist Literature.
Gen. Intro. : Poussin, Opinions^ 343, 378 ; Anesaki, ERE. iv. 840.
Literature : Winternitz, II. i. 266 ; Mitra; H. P. ^astri, II. ii~xv ; Nanjio,
cols. 443-55 ; AMG, ii. 291-349; Waddell, ERE. vii. 785.
A. Tantras.
Early 7th. 1. Tathdgata-guhyaka or Guhya-samdja : Winternitz, II. i.
274, 262 ; Mitra, 261 ; AMG, ii. 299.
7th c. 2. Suvarnaprabhdsottamardja : Catalogue of Hodgson MSS,
i. 8 ; iii. 10, 59; vi. 8; vii. 73 ; Mitra, 241 ; Nanjio, 126; AMG. ii. 315;
Winternitz, II. i. 245 ; ERE. iv. 839. See no. 9, p. 396.
7th c. 3. Mahdvairochandbhisambodhi : Anesaki, ERE. iv. 840 ;
Nanjio, 530; AMG. ii. 307.
7th c. 4. Susiddhikdramahd T. : Nanjio, 533; AMG. ii. 341.
7th and 8th oa 5. Tantras translated into Chinese by Amoghavajra :
Nanjio, col. 446, esp. Nos. 1020, 1023, 1044, 1054, 1064.
Early 8th. 6. Vajra-mantra-dhirusanii-mdra T. : AMG. ii. 348.
7. Guna-kdrandavyuha {\txs€) : Mitra, 95 ; Winternitz, II. i. 238;
Poussin, ERE. i. 95 ; ii. 259-60. See KdrandavyUha^ above, p. 396.
8. Mahdkdla T.\ Winternitz, II. 1**274; Mitra, 172; AMG.
ii. 298.
Prob. 9th c. 9. Pahchakrama : Winternitz, II. i. 275 ; Poussin, Atudes
et Textes Tantriques.
A.D. 965. 10. Srlkdlachakra T. : Poussin, ERE. i. 95 ; Waddell, ERE.
iv. 572 ; H.P. !§astrl, II. ii ; Winternitz, II. i. 275 ; AMG. ii. 292.
10th c. 11. He-vajra T.\ H.P. iSastrl, II. xii ; Nanjio, 1060 ; AMG.
ii. 293 ; Getty, GNB. 125.
12. Chandamahdroshana T.\ H. P. SastrT, II. ix; AMG. ii. 298.
18. Heru'ka T. : H. P. SastrT, II. vii ; AMG. ii. 347.
10th c. 14. Vajra-bhairava T. : Nanjio, 1062 ; Getty, GNB. 146.
15. Ddkim-jdlasambara : H. P. Sastrl, II. xiii ; AMG. ii. 292.
10th o. 16. Mahjusrtmula T. : Winternitz, II. i. 275; Nanjio, 1056;
AMG. ii. 313.
10th c. 17. Bhiltaddmara T. : Nanjio, 1031 ; AMG. ii. 334.
B. Other Sakta Works.
10th c. Kanu Bhatta ; 1. Charydcharya-vinischaya^ Bengali love-songs:
Sen, HBLL. 38.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 399
10th or 11th. 2. Ddkdrnava^ a Bengali aphoristic work : Sen,
HBLL, 16.
3. Jndnddisddhana, a Sahajiya polemical work in Bengali : Sen,
VSP. i. 26 if.
12th or Idth. 4. Svayambhu P, : Winternitz II. i. 267; Mitra, 249;
Poussin, ERE. i. 94.
C. Dharanis.
1. The two Prajiia-paramita-hridaya sutras : above,.Nos. 5 and 6, p. 397.
2. Ushntsha-vijaya Dh, : l{otTv\t,JRAS, 191 1 , 460; M itra, 267; Nanjio,
348, 1467*; AMG. ii. 306.
^, Apardjita-mahdpratyahgird Dh,\ Hoemle, JRAS, 191 1, 461;
MRBL, 52 ; Mitra, 227 ; Nanjio, 1016.
4. Aparimitdyur Dh., for long life : Mitra, 41 ; Hoernle, MRBL,
289 ; Getty, GNB. 9.
5. Pancharakshd: Mitra, 164; Winternitz, II. i. 271.
6. Durgati'parisodhana Dh, : Mitra, 84 ; AMG, ii. 306.
7. i1/tf^flwrtjj/«r/ Z?^. against snake-poison : Mitra, 173; Winternitz, II.
i. 271 ; Nanjio, 306; AMG, ii. 316.
8. Parnasavarindma Dh, : Mitra, 176; Nanjio, 973.
9. Chundi'devi Dh, : Nanjio, 344, 345, 346.
10. Eleven Tibetan Dharanis : FTr. AMG. v. 421.
D. Stotra. Odes.
Intro. : Wilson, Works^ II. ii ; Winternitz, II. i. 267; Vidyabhushana,
Bauddhastotrasamgraha (BL 1908), Intro.
Early 6th. Chandragomin ; 1. Tdrdsddhanasataka i Winternitz, II. i.
269.
Mid 8th. Sarvajnamitra ; 2. Aryatdrdsragdhardstotra : Mitra, 228 ;
Winternitz, II. i. 268.
3. Paramdrthandma-sahgiti, or Mahjusrindfnasahgiti \ Mitra,
175; Nanjio, 1370; AMG, ii. 291; Poussin, Opinions^ 399; ERE.
viii. 405.
4. Suprabhdta-stavUy 49 odes : Mitra, 239.
IV. JAIN LITERATURE.
Gen. Intro. : Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism^ Oxford,
191 5; Jacobi, ^y?^'. vii. 465. The system: Madhava, 5Z?5. iii : Cowell,
36 ; Mrs. Stevenson, op. cit. ; Jacobi, Third Or, Cong, ii. 59 ; ERE, ii.
199; vii. 467. Cosmography: Jacobi, ERE, iv. 160. Biogpraphy:
Tank, A Dictionary of Jaina Biography (A only), Arrah, 191 7. Teoh-
nical terms : The faina Gem Dictionary , Jaini, Arrah, 19 18.
Literature : No history exists, but Gu^rinot's Essai de Bibliographic
Jaina, Paris, 1906, contains full lists and indices of the books.
i. Svetambara Literature.
The Canon: Weber, lA, xvii-xxi; Jacobi, SBE, XXII. xxxv-xlvii;
XLV. xl ; ERE, vii. 467. Names in list given in Sanskrit, Prakrit
equivalents in brackets. The Canon is in Prakrit. Later literature in
Sanskrit, unless otherwise described._
A. Eleven Anga : 1. Achara (Ayara) ; 2. Sutrakrita (Suyagada) ;
3. Sthana (Thana) ; 4. Samavaya ; 6. Bhagavatl ; 6. Jnatadharmakatha
400 BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Nayadhammakaha) ; 7. Upa^akada^ (Uvasagadasao) ; 8. Antakritadasa
( Antagadadasao) ; 9. Anuttaraupapatikada^ (Anuttarovavaiyadasao) ;
10. Pra^navyakarana (Paihhavagarana); 11. Vipaka (Vivaga); [12.
Drish^ivada: lost].'
B. Twelve U pang A : 12. Aupapatika (Ovaiya) ; 13. Rajapra^ya
(Rayapasenaiyya) ; 14. Jivabhigama ; 16. Prajnapana (Pannavana) j
16. Jambudvlpaprajnapti (Jambuddlvapannatti) ; 17. Chandrapiajfiapd
(Chandapannatti) ; 18. Suryaprajnapti (Sufiyapannatti) ; 18. Nira^^
(Nirayavaliyao) or Kalpika (Kappiyao) ; 20. Kalpivatamsika (Kapi»va-
diihsiao) ; 21. Pushpika (Pupphiy§o) ; 22. Pusbpachuda (Pupphaculao) ;
28. Vrishnida^ (Vahhidasao).
C. Ten PrakIrna (Painna or Payanna) : 24. ChatuhS^ana (Chausa-
rana) ; 25. Saihstara (Santhara); 26. Aturapratyakhyana (Aurapachchak-
hana) ; 27. Bhaktaparijna ; 28. Tandulavaitalika (Tandiilave^iya) ;
29. Cfaiandaviyyaya ; 80. Devendrastava(Devindatthaa) ; M. Ganitavidya
(Ganiviyya) ; 32. Mahapratyakhyana ; 33. Virastava (Vlratthaa)'.
D*. Six ChhedasOtra or Chhedagrantha : 34. Ni^Itha ; 35. Maha-
ni^itha ; 36. Vyavahara ; 37. DasaSrutaskandha, including 87 a. Kalpa-
sutra ; 38. Brihatkalpa ; 39. Paiichakalpa.
£. Two sutras without a common name: 40. Nandi; 41. Anayo-
gadvara.
F._Four MOlasutra or MOlagrantha : 42. Uttaradhyayana;
43. Avaiyaka; 44. Dasavaikalika ; 45. Pindaniryukti.
Note: For some variation in the canonical list, see Mrs. Stevenson,
HJ. 13.
Translations: ETrs. of Nos. i, 3, 37a, and 42, Jacobi, 5i?-£. xxii
and xlv ; of No. 7, Hoemle, Calcutta, 1888 ; of Nos. 8 and 9, Baraett,
^ OTF, London, 1907.
Writers :
Prajnapana^ 15, is attributed to Ajjasama (Weber, I A, xvii. 282) and
also to Kdlakacharya (Gu^rinot, 176).
Chatuhsarana^ 24, is attributed to Virabhadra.
Vyavahara^ 36, Dasdsruiaskhandha, 37. including KcUpa-sutra^ 37 a,
and Rrihatkalpa^ 38, are attributed to Bhadrabahu, about 300 B. C.
Nandi'sutra, 40, and part of the Kalpa-sutray 37 a, may possibly be by
Devarddhi, who arranged the Canon : Weber, lA, xxi, 212.
Dasavaikalika, 44, is attributed to Sijjambhava.
Extra-Canonical Literature.
300 B.C. Bhadrabahu; 46. Niryuktis, i. e. brief comms. in Prakrit
verse, on Nos. i, 2, 18, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44; 47. Upcuargakara-stoira
rPrak.), an ode to Par^vanatha: text and ETr. Jacobi, Kalpasutra
(Leipzig, 1879), P* i2n.
Kalakacharya ; 48. An old Jain astronomy : Gudrinoti 22. Some
say there were five Kalakacharyas : Gu^rinot, 176.
3rd or 4th. Vimala Suri ; 49. Paiimachartya (Prak.) : a Jain Rama-
yana. Jacobi, Mod, Rev, 1914, 574; ERE, vh. 467.
4th or 6th. Umasvati; 60. Tattvarthadhigama-'sutrax analysis in
English, Mitra, Notices, vii. 187 ; Text, GTr., and notes, Jacobi, ZDMG,
Ix. 287 and 512 ; Text, Intro. ETr. and Comm., J. L. JainI, Arrah, 1919.
4th or 6th. Siddhasena Divakara ; 61. Kalydnamandira'Stotru^ ode
to Par^vanatha : Text and GTr. Jacobi, /. St, xiv. 375 ; 62. Ny&ySvaUtra
(Logic): Text and ETr. Vidyabhushana, Arrah, 191 5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 401
A.D. 514. The Canon. Devarddhi presided, possibly author of the
iVandi'Sutra, No. 40, and of part of the Kalpa-sutrOy No. 37 a.
Early eth. Siddhasena Gani; 53. Tattvartha-fikd, a comm. on No. 50
64. A number of Prak. bhashyas, i. e. prose comms., on the canonica
texts: see Leumann, ZDMG. xlvi. 581 ; Jacobi, ZDMG, Ix. 289: Vidya-
bhushana, MSIL, 22 ; Gu^rinot, 1 56.
Early 7th. Manatunga, pu^rinot, 392 ; 56. Bhaktdmara-stoira :
Text and GTr. Jacobi, /. St, xiv. 359 ; Gu^rinot, 204 ; 56. Bhayahara-
r stotra: Gu^rinot, 74, 372 ; Peterson, i. 52.
- c. 800. Bappabhatti ; 57. Sarasvatistotra\ Bhandarkar, /?, 1883-4,
15; Duff, CL 65.
-: 8th or 9th. Jayavallabha ; 58. Vajjdlagga (Prak.) : Bhandarkar, R,
- 1883-4, 16; Konow and Lanman*s Karpura-mahjari (HOS.\ 193;
^ Jacobi, ERE, vii. 467 ; Mod, Rev, 1914, 573 ; Gudrinot, 67, 80, 84.
P Early 9th. Mallavadin : Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 34 ; Peterson, iv. 4.
^ Late 9th. Haribhadra: Life and date, Pull^, GSAI, \, 47 ; viii. 159 ;
S ix. I ; xii. 225 ; 59. Comms. on nos. 15, 16, 43, 44 : Leumann, ZDMG, xlvi.
fc- 581 ; Gu^rinot, 56, 69, 144, 369, 433 ; 60. Shaddarsanasamuchchhaya :
Text and Intro. : Pull^, loc. cit. FTr. of last chapter, Suali, Le Musion^
' ' 1908, ix. 277; Q\. Samardichchhakahdi Prak. tales: Jacobi, ERE, vii.
467 ; Mod, Rev. 19 14, 576 ; Gu^rinot, 67.
-^ Late 9th. ^Ilanka : Leumann, ZDMG, xlvi. 581 ; 62. Comm. on
No. I : A.D. 863: Gu^rinot, 79, 132; Peterson, iii. 36; 63. Comm. on
*^ No. 2 : Gu^rinot, 65, 133 ; 64. Comm. on part of No. 43.
_. A.D. 906. Siddharshi: Life and date: Gu^rinot, 417 ; Qh, Upamiti-
-: bhava^prapanchdkathd \ Prak. allegory: Intro, and partial ITr. Ballini,
>^ GSAI. xvii and xviii : Gu^rinot, 150; Jacobi, Mod, Rev, 1914, 576;
£RE. vii. 467.
66. Kdlakdchdryakdthdnaka (Prak.) ; Jacobi, ZDMG, xxxiv. 247 ;
^ Gu^rinot, 176, 467.
Ijate 10th. Sobhana : Life, with text and GTr. of 67. Chaturvtmsati-
^yinastuti : Jacobi, ZDMG. xxxii. 509.
Xiate 10th. Dhanapala : Life, with text and GTr. of 68. Rtshabha-
- ^anchdsikd : Klatt, ZDMG. xxxiii. 445 ; Gu^rinot, 56, 205 ; 69. Tilaka-
'■ ^hanjart: Jacobi, ERE. vii. 467; 70. Pdiyalachchht^ A.D. 972, a Prak.
'Vocabulary : Text, Buhler, Gottingen, 1879.
10th c. 71. Jlvaka Chintdmaniy romantic poem in Tam. : BMCTB, iv.
IDied 1040. Santisuri ; 72. Prak. comm. on No. 42 : Jacobi, AEM,^
, H^reface ; 73. Jtvaviydra, Prak. dogmatic work : text and FTr. Gu^rinot,
• ^A. 1902, 231 ; Gu^rinot, 158.
n. 1069. Jinachandra (guru of Abhayadeva) ; 74. Samvegaran^asdldy
r^=%. vjork on worship in 18,000 couplets : Duff, CI, 128 ; Peterson, R. V. xx.
Died 1078. Abhayadeva: Peterson, R, IV. iv; Leumann, ZDMG.
:lvi. 582 ; 76. Comms. on Nos. 3-12: Gu^rinot, 55, 66, 68, 69, 133, 134,
35> 138 ; IQ, Jayaiihuyanastotra: Peterson, R, iii. 25 ; Gu^rinot, 79.
Fl. 1082. Gunachandra ; 77. Mahdvtracharita (Prak.) : Duff, CL 132.
1086-1169. Devabhadra : Peterson, R, IV. liv ; Gu^rinot, 82 ;
Pdrsvandthacharitra^ A.D. 11 12; 79. Viracharitra \ 80. Samve-
^ ^^arahgasdid, on worship.
1. 1089-1173. Hemachandra, Life : ^v^A^r^Ueber das Leben des Jaina--
- t"^lfdnches Hemachandra, Vienna, 1889 ; Jacobi, ERE, vi. 591 ; Gu^rinot.
r-r5.io; 81. Comm. on No. 41; 82. Yogasdstra^ or Adhydtmopanishad \
4oa ^ BIBLIOGRAPHY
Intro., Analysis, and GTr. Windisch, ZDMG. xxviii. 185, 628; cf.
Garbe, SY, 39-40; 83. VttaragastuH \ Gudrinot, 157, 410; 84. J
mdnachintdmani : Jacobi, ERE, vi. 591 ; 86. Trishashftsaldkdpuru
charita : Analysis, Mitra, Notices^ viii. 122 ; 86. Parisishfapa$
(appendix to 85) : Intro., Text, and Analysis, Jacobi, Calcutta, I
GTr. of the fables in this work, Hertel, Ausgewdklte Erzcihlungen
HemachandrcC s Parisishtaparvan ; 87. Mahdviracharita (last chapt<
85) : Gu^rinot, 49, 82 ; 88. Vasudeva-Hinda (Prak.), Jacob! , Mod, i
1914, 576; Peterson, R, i. 58 ; Gu^rinot, 75.'
PI. 1150. Malayagiri : Leumann, ZDMG, xlvi. 582 ; 80. Comms
Nos. 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 36, 40: Gu^rinot, 69, 55, 65, 115, 69, 79.
Iiate 12th. Chandrasuri : Peterson, R, IV. xxvii ; 80. Pr§k. com
on Nos. 19, 43J Gudrinot, 69, 398.
Fl. 1191. Asada; 91. Vivekamanjar%\ Duff, CL 167; Peterson,
IV. xii ; 92. Upadesakandati : Gu^rinot, 84.
PI. 1220. Jinadattasuri: Duff, CL 179; 93. Vivekamldsai Bhandaii
R. 1883-4, 156; Gudrinot, 393.
Fl. 1230. Amarachandra: Duff, CI. 182 ; 94. Balabh&ratax Gudrii
184 ; 95. Padmandbhakdvya : Gu^rinot, 75.
PI. 1239. Tilakacharya : Peterson, R, IV. xlviii ; 96. Comm. on Na
c. 1260. ?Yahh3ich&ndr2L(B); 97. Pradhdvakacharty a: Duff, /C a
Gu^rinot, 410.
PI. 1271. Devendrasuri ; 98. Six Karmagranthas and comms. on
first five : Peterson, R, IV. Ivii.
PI. 1304. Merutunga; 99, Prabandhachintdmani i Intro, and £'
Tawney, Calcutta, 1901 ; Duff,C/.2ii ; Gu^rinot, 77, 123, 391 ; 100.*Mm
purushacharitrayox Upadesasata; Gu^rinot, 72, 85 ; 101. ShaddarsoMm
chdra (a criticism of systems) : Max Miiller, India^ What f 362 ; Gu6iDi
393 ; 102. Munjaprabandha (Prak.) : Jhaveri, MGL. 19.
Fl. 1349. Rajasekharasuri ; 103. Prabandhakosa : Gudrinot, !0
104. Antarakathdsahgraha ; Gu^rinot, 185.
Late 14th. Jnanasagara; 105. Comms. on Nos. 43, 45, the latter
1383 : Peterson, R. IV. xlvi; Duff, CI. 223.
c. 1372. Ratna^ekhara (A) ; 106. Srtpdlacharitra: Peterson,-^. IV. di
107. Laghukshetrdsamdsa (Mythical Geography) : Gu^rinot, 432.
c. 1400. Gunaratna; \0S. Shaddarsanasafmichchhayaftkd i comm.(
No. 60: Gu^rinot, 68, 151.
109. Navatattva (date and author unknown) : a popular statema
in varying recensions, of the nine ^vetambara categories: ETr. Stevenso
London, 1848.
1384-1443. Somasundara : Peterson, R. IV. cxxxvi ; 110. Comfl!
on Nos. 24, 43 ; 111. Comm. on No. 36 ; 112. on the UpadeiamiU
113. on the Navatattva.
1380-1447. Munisundara ; 114. Upadesaratndkara ; 116. AiUratk
tushkakathd ; 116. Adhydtmakaipadruma ; 117. S^ihasrandmasmrfi
Peterson, R. IV. xcvii ; Duff, CI. 230, 248.
PI. 1436. Jinamandana ; lliS. Kumdrapdlaprabandha : Duff, CI. 2^>
Gu^rinot, 410, 423.
Fl. 1438., Jinaklrti ; 119. Champakasreshthikathdnaka (a.d. 1400):
Text and GTr. Weber, Ueber das Champakasreshthikathdftakam, Berft
1883 ; 120. Dhanyasdlichariira ; 121. Ddnakalpadruma ; 122. Sr^t^
gopdlakathd : Peterson, R, IV. xxxiii ; Duff, CI. 254 ; Gu^rinot, 177.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 403
1401-61. Ratnasekhara (B) ; 123. Comms. : Peterson, /?. IV. cii ;
Gu^rinot, 45, 71, 85, 376, 432.
Fl. 1464. Subhaslla ; 124. Pahchasattprabodhasambandha : Intro,
and analysis in Italian, Ballini, IOC, xiii, Leyden, 1904; Gu^rinot, 183;
125. Bharatddikathd, or Kathdkosa : Gu^rinot, 65, 188 ; 128. Comm. on
No. 66: Bhau \>2!%JBBRAS. ix. 139; Gudrinot, 407.
Fl. 1526. Harishena ; 127. Jagaisundariyogamdld : Peterson, R, i.
52, 91 ; Gu^rinot, 74, 401 ; Duff, CI, 273.
Fl. 1573. Dharmasagara ; 128. Kupakshakausikddttya, or Prava-
chanaparikshd: Weber, SKPAW. 1887; Bhandarkar, /?. 1883-4, 150;
Gu^rinot, 89, 175, 368.
Samayasundara : Peterson, iii. 3 ; 129. Kalpalatd^ comm. on 37 a;
Gu^rinot, 65, 66 ; 130. Gdthdsahasrt : 1,000 verse quotations : Peterson,
iii. 3 ; Gu^rinot, 78 ; .131. Visamvddasataka : Gu^rinot, 78 ; 132. Sdmd-
chdrlsataka : lA, xxxiii. 169 ; Gudrinot, 382, 83, 92.
1652. Vinayavijaya ; \^Z, Lokafirakdsa; an encyclopaedia of Jainism :
Jacobi, ERE, vii. 467.
B, Digambara Literature.
Lit. in Sanskrit, unless otherwise described.
The Lost Canon : see Bhandarkar, R, 1883-4, where an analysis of
the account in Sakalaklrti's Tativdrthasdradipikd^ No. 204, below, is
given ; also Jaini, Outlines of Jainism (Cambridge, 1916), p. 135, where
a fuller description may be read.
134. SUryaprajhapti^ Gu^rinot, 20, 139, 467 ; and 135. Chandra-
prajnaptiy Gudrinot, 65, 69 ; both Prakrit.
Vattakera ; 136. MUldchdra^ Prak. : Peterson, ii. 74 ; Gudrinot,
20, ^T^ 99 ; 137. Trivarndchdra, Prak. : Biihler, lA. vii. 28 ; Gudrinot, 20.
Kundakunda : Pathak, I A. xiv, 14; 4^udrinot, 272. Cf. also
Gu^rinot, 380. All works in Prak. ; 138. Shatprdbhrita ; Peterson, ii. 89 ;
Guerinot, ^'j ; 139. Ashtaprdbhrita : Gudrinot, 99 ; 140. Samayasdra-
prdb hriia ', AmXysis : Mitra, Notices ^ VII. 183 ; Bhandarkar, R. 1882-3 ;
42 ; Gudrinot, 64, 86, 100, 140, 272 ; 141. Prdbhritasdra : Pathak,
I A, xiv. 15; Guerinot, 272; 142. Pravachanasdra \ full analysis,
Bhandarkar, R, 1883-4, 91; Guerinot, 87; \AlZ, Niyamasdra\ brief
analysis, Bhandarkar, loc. cit. 102 ; Guerinot; 87 ; 144. Panchdstikdya,
or Pahchatihiyasamgahastitta : Text, intro., and analysis in Italian : Pavo-
lini^ GSAI. xiv. i ; Guerinot, 157 ; 145. Rayanasdra\ and 146. Dvdda"
sdnuprekshd^ Guerinot, 272.
c. 600. Samantabhadra : Pathak, /OC.ix. 186; JBBRAS. 1894, 218;
Guerinot, 415, 416; Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 22; 147. Gandhahastima-
hdbhdshya : comm. on No. 50 : Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 22 ; 148. Apta-
tnlmdmsd or Devdgamastotra : brief analysis, Vidyabhushana, 24 ; Sansk.
analysis, Mitra, Notices^ vi. 105 ; Guerinot, 63 ; its comms. : Pathak, loc.
cit.; Guerinot, 415; \4Q, Ratnakarandasrdvakdchdrai text and ETr.
C. R.Jain, The Householder's Dharmd^' KxTih^ 191 7; Guerinot, 85,476;
150. Yuktyanusdsana : Guerinot, 476; 151. Svayambhustotra ; and 152.
Chaturvimsati'jina-stuti : Vidyabhushana, MSIL, 23. Other works :
Rice, /R AS, 1883, 395; Guerinot, 403.
Fl. 643. Raviklrti ; 153, /inakathe (Kan.) : Guerinot, 96, 227, 483 ;
Kice, /RAS, 1890, 245 : Guerinot, 405.
'Pi J
'».
404 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fl. 660. Ravishena : DufT, CI, 55 ; 154. Padma Purdna : Bhandarkar,
IOC. vii. 30 ; Gu^rinot, 394.
0.700. Pujyapada; 155. Sarvdrthasiddhi i comm. on Na 50: Rice,
JRAS, 1883, 397 ; Gudrinot, 403.
o. 700-70. Akalanka: Pathak, IOC. ix. i, 186; Gudrinot, 270, 298,
415; \bQ. Akalahkasiotra ] Gudrinot, 19; 151. Ask fasa ft: comm. on
No. 148: Pathak, loc. cit. ; Gudrinot, 416; 158. /atkavarhdsrama (on
conduct) : Gu^rinot, 96 ; 159. Tattvdrthafikdvydkhydlamkdra : comm. on
No. 50 : Peterson, ii. 78 ; Gudrinot, yy. For these and other work$, see
Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 25.
8th o. 160. Rdjavdrttika : comm. on No. 50 : Gu^rinot, 35.
8th o. 161. Ndladiydr (Tamil verse) : Bamett, BMCTB. iv.
Fl. 783. Jinasena ; 162. Harivaiksapurdna : full analysis, Mitra,
Notices^ vi. 74; Gu^rinot, 63.
V c. 800. Y\dy2CR?jid2L\ IQZ. Slokavdriika or JainaslokavdrtikayCovam.
on No. 50; Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 27 ; Gu^rinot,4i6; 164. Ashtasaham^
or Aptamtmdmsdlahkdra : a super-comm. on No. 148, following up No. 1 57 :
Vidyabhusana, MSIL. 27; 165. Aptapartkshd^ Gu^rinot, 63, 415; 106.
Pramdmparlkshd : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 27.
^rivarddhadeva ; 167. Chuddmani (Kan.) : Rice, KL. 24.
o. 800. Manikyanandin ; 168. Partkshdmukha : Vidyabhushana,
MSIL. 28.
o. 825. Prabhachandra (A) ; 169. Prameyakamalamdrtanda on No.
168 : Vidyabhushana, MSIL. 33.
A. D. 837. YlOljayadhavaldx Bhandarkar, EHD. 68 ; Gu^rinot, 394 ;
Pathak, /£'5/?-4 5. 1894, 226.
9th o. Jinasena; 171. Adipurdna ox Trishashtilakshanamahdpurdm:
brief analysis, Bhandarkar, i?. 1883-4, 118; Gudrinot, 88 *; m.Pdrskud'
bkudaya: Fkthaky /BBRAS. 1894, 224; Gu^rinot, 99.
9th o. Gunabhadra ; 173. completed Jinaisena's Adipurdna : Pathak,
JBBRAS. 1894, 225 J 174. Utturapurdna : Bhandarkar, R. "1883-4, 119;
Gu^rinot, 88, 175. Atmdnusdsana : Gu^rinot, 476.
9th o. Amoghavarsha I ; VlQ.Prasnottaramdld : Bhandarkar, EHD. 68;
Fl. 905. Amritachandra : Duff, CI. 83; 177. Comm. on. No. 140:
Gu^rinot, jy ; 178. Comm. on No. 142 : Peterson, IV. ix ; 179. Comm. on
No. 144: Gu^rinot, 157; ISO. Tattvdrthasdra: Gudrinot, 476; 181.
Purushdrthasiddhyupdya : Bodleian Catal. ii. 226 ; Gu^rinot, 45, 476.
Fl. 941. Pampa; 182. Adipurdna^ Kan.: Gu^rinot, 414; Rice KL
27 ; 183. Pampa Bhdrata or Vikraindrjunaviyaja^ Kan. : Rice, KL. 26.
Fl. 950. Ponna ; 184. Sdnti Purdna^ Kan., on the 1 6th Tirthakara:
Rice, KL. 28 ; 185. Jindksharamdle^ Kan., an acrostic in praise of the
Tlrthakaras : Rice, KL. 28.
FL 960. Somadeva ; 186. Yasastilaka : full analysis, Peterson, ii. 33 ;
Gu^rinot, 76 ; 187. Nttivdkydmrita : Gu^rinot, 108.
Fl. 980. Ranna; 188. Ajit'a Purdna, Kan., on the 2nd Tirthakara:
Rice, KL. 28 ; 189. Sdhasa Bhtma Vijaya, Kan., Rice,-A!X. 28.
Prob. 10th c. I'QO. Jivaka-chintdmaniy a Tamil artistic romance:
Frazer, ERE. viii. 91.
c. 980. Chamundaraya (Kan. Chavundaraya) ; 191. Chdvundar&yor
purdna, Kan. : Rice A'Z,. 28 ; Ghoshal, Dawa Samgaha (see next entry)i
Intro., XX.
c. 980. Nemichandra ; 192. Dravya-samgraha (Prak.) : T&Ht^ Intro.,
ETr. and comm., Ghoshal, Dairua Samgaha^ Arrah, 1917; W8.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 405
Trilokasdra : Ghoshal, op. cit. xlii ; analysis, Mitra, Notices^ vi. 97 ;
Gu^rinot, 20 ; 194. Gomtnatasdra (written for Chamundaraya) : Ghoshal^
xl ; 195. Ljibdhisdra (on attainment) : Ghoshal, xii ; 196. Kshapanasdra :
Ghoshal, xlii.
o. 1100. Abhinava Pampa; 197. Mallindthapurana^ Kan. : Rice, xl. 30;
198. Pampa Rdmdyana^ Kan., Rice, KL, 30.
o. 1120. Balachandra (A) ; 199. Comm. on No. 141 : Gu^inot, 272,
404 ; 200. Tattvaratnadipikd : Gu^rinot, 404.
1200-50. Asadhara; 20\, Dharmdmrita \ ^02,Trishashiismriti : and
many other works. Life, analysis of the Dharmdmrita and list of works :
Bhandarkar, R, 1883-4, 103.
^ri Yogindra ; 203. Paramdtmaprakdia : ETr. R. U. Jain, Arrah,
1915.
Fl. 1464. Sakalaklrti ; 204. Tattvarthasdradipikd ; 205. Prasnot-
taropdsakdchdra : Bhandarkar, R, 1883-4, 116 ; 206. Sdntindthacharita ;
and 207. Pdrsvandthacharita \ analysis, Bhandarkar, 106, 116, 122;
208. Vardhamdnapurdna : Gu^rinot, 100.
End 15th. Srutasagara : Peterson, IV. cxxiii ; 209. Jinasamhitd (on
the building of temples, making images, and worship) : Bhandarkar, R,
1883-4, 117 J 210. Comm. on No. 138; Gudrinot, 'jy'y 211. TaUvdrthadi-
pikd\ Bhandarkar, 117. ,
Fl. 1528. Nemidatta ; 212. Sripdlacharitra ; 213. Nemijinapurdna ;
7^^, Dhanyakumdracharitra \ 2Xb, Arddhandkathdkosai Gu^rinot, 83,
83, Z% ; 216. Srdvakdchdra ; Peterson, V. xl.
16th c. ^ubhachandra ; 217. Pdndava P., and many other works :
Peterson, V. Ixxiii.
o. 1626. Ratnachandra ; 21S, Subkaumachariira': Bhandarkar,^.
1883-4, 124 ; 219. Pradyumnacharitra : Gu^rinot, 73.
1630-50. Banarasi Das ; works in Hindi verse ; 220. Sddhubandand ;
W\, Mokshamdrgapaidi\ 222. Sainayasdranafikd\ Gu^rinot, 101, 148,
208.
INDEX
Abhang, Marathi word for hymn, 235,
_ 302, 374- , . .
Abhasa, t. t of Kashmir Saivism, 198.
Abhayadeva, 278, 279, 401.
Abhayatilaka, 370.
Abhidhamma Pitaka, of Buddhist
Canon, 67, 392 ; probably a late
work, not belonging to original
Canon, 68 ; only two schools pos-
sessed an Abhidhamma P., 68, 106.
Abhidhammatthasamgaha^ 393.
Abhidharma, Sanskrit for Abhidham-
ma. See Abhidharma Pitaka.
Abhidharvia-dhatukdyapaday 394.
Abhidharma-koia of Vasubandhu, 161,
395.
Abhidharma-koia-vydkhydt 161, 394.
Abhidharma Pitaka, of the Sarvastiva-
dins, 107 ; comm. on it, 108.
Abhidharnia-prakaranapdda^ 394.
Abhidharma-sangUiparydyapdda, 394.
AbhidharniO'Skandhap&day 394.
Abkidharma-vijndnakdyapdiia, 394.
Abhinava Gupta, 259, 265, 386.
Abhinava Pampa, 283, 405.
Abhinishkramana'Siitra^ 156, 207.
Aborigines of India, 4 f., 16.
Achdrdhga-siltra, 166, 215, 399.
Achdryaparicharya^ 379.
Achintya-bhedabheda, 287, 311.
Adahgan-Murai, 352, 387.
Adbhuta Brdhma>ia^ 42, 363, 366.
Adbhuta Gitdy 336, 382.
Adbhuta Rdmdyana^ 250, 329, 381.
Adhdra-kdrikds, 386.
Adhvara, 6.
Adhvaryu, 6, 7, 14, 1 7, 19, 20.
Adhydtma-Kalpadruma^ 402.
Adhydtma Ndrdyana^ 250.
Adhydtma Rdmdyatia^ a mediaeval
Ramaite epic, 190, 250, 329, 381 ;
contains the Rama-hridaya and the
Rdma-gitd, 250 ; a Kanarese version,
375-
Adhydtma U.^ 364.
Adhydtmopanishad^ 401.
Adi-Buddha, 273, 274.
Adi Granthf another name for the
_ Granth of the Sikhs, 339.
Adi P. (Jain), 217, 404.
Adi P, (Jain, Kanarese), 283, 404.
Aditi, 10.
Aditya Upapurdna^ 372.
Adi UpadeiUf 344.
Adoration Mantras, 20a.
Advaita, monism, a form of the Ve-
danta, 128.
Advaitacharya, 307.
Advaitananda, 251, 286, 368.
Advaita-siddhiy 368.
Advayatdraka U.., 364.
Afghanistan, 103.
Agamapram&nya^ 241.
Agamas, Saiva manuals, 190, 193, 197,
384, 387 ; which sects used Agamas.?
190,197,198,255,257; date, 194;
contents, 1 94 f. ; belong to various
sects, 195 ; commentaries, 259 ;
Lihgayat Agamas, 364.
Agama-tattva-vildsa^ 354, 389.
Agamic Saivas, i. e. ^aivas who use the
Agamas, 191, 193 if., 255, 349, 384.
Agastya, 9n.
Agastya S. 183, 381 ; see Agastya-'
Suitkshna Samv&da,
Agastya-Sutikshna Samvdda^ 190,
381 ; a Ramaite work, 190; called
Agastya S,, 183; date, 190; re-
ferred to in Adhydtma Rdm&yana^
250.
Agastya-sOtraSy 269, 359, 389.
Aghoraghan(a, a Kapalika ascetic,
192.
A_ghoris, 347.
Agneyaka A,, 193.
Agni, ID, II, 15,49-
Agnichayana, 22.
Agni P., 139, 179, 372; probably a
Bhagavata work, 179, 181, 206, 374;
contains a passage on SQrya, 206;
a passage on Gane&a, 2€>6, 390;
recognizes the five gods, 179.
Agra, 316.
Agra Das, 317.
4o8
INDEX
Ahamkara, t.t. of the Samkhya system,
98, 130.
Ahappey, 352.
Ahimsa, non-injury, 5*1 ; especially non-
injury to animal life, 72.
Ahmedabad, 318.
Ahobila Monastery, 320.
Aikya, 261.
Aing, 201.
Aifevarika, theistic (from I&vara), 274.
Aitareya Aranyaka^ 30, 295, 363.
Aitareya Brdhtnana, 27, 28, 363 ; com-
mentary, 295.
Aitareya U,, 54, 55, 235, 364.
Aitareyins, a school of the Rigveda, 27,
54-
Ajita, name of an Agama, 193.
Ajivikas, 77 n. i,
Ajjasama, 120, 399.
Ajna, name of one of the occult circles,
ace. to Sakta Yoga, 269.
Akalanka, 216, 219, 404.
Akalahka-stotraf 216, 404.
Akalis, 340.
Aka^, ether; 1. 1. of VaiSeshika system,
133.
Akbar, 284, 291, 310, 337.
Akshatndlikd U., 364.
Akshapada Gautama, 370.
Akshi U,i 364.
Akshobya, 273.
Akutobhaydy 397.
Aland i, 301.
Alavantar Madavappattar, 296, 373.
Alayavijnana, 160, 273.
Alberuni, 205, 223.
Alexander the Great, 33, 36, 42, 46.
Al Haqq, 331, 343.
Allahabad, 174, 304, 327.
Allama Prabhu, 353.
Allegory, 28.
Alvars, Vaishnava poet-musicians of
the Tamil country, 182, 187, 232,
379 ; date, 188 ; they taught iSudras
and outcastes as well as Caste people,
244; they are leaders and teac^iers of
the 6ri- Vaishnava sect, 187; their
images worshipped in the temples,
187 ; their names, 188 ; their influence,
220; their hymns collected and ar-
ranged, 241 ; called Ndldyira Pra-
bandhani, 241 ; set to Dravidian
music, 241 ; introduced into the
temples, 240, 241.
Alwar, 334, 342.
Ama, 214.
Amalananda, 222, 368.
Amarachandra, 380, 402.
Amar Das, 337, 382.
Amar Mul, 382.
Amba BhawanT, 356.
Amida, Japanese contraction of An
tabha, 275.
Amitabha, 117, 273.
Amitdyur-dhydna'Sutra, 158, 596.
Amoghasiddha, 273.
Amoghavajra, 210, 213, 398.
Amoghavarsha I, 217, 404.
Amritabindti 6^., 95, 564.
Amritachandray 281, 404.
Amritandda U,y 364.
Aniritdnubhava, 235, 253, 374, 384.
Amriteia T'., 265.
Amptsar, 337, 341.
Amsumdn, name of an Agama, 193.
Anadu Vtra-iaiva-sdra-sah:gra^f 38
Anandaiahart, 266, 388.
Ananta Deva, 285 n. 2, 395, 367, 37
Anas, 5.
Anatta, 64.
Anava, one element in Pa&a, 195.
Ancestor-worship, i, 16, as.
Andal, 188.
Anga, a limb, or section of the J
Canon, 75, 120, 163; eleven AAga
the Svetambara Canon, 76;
critical problem they involve, 76, t,
the twelfth Anga, 163 ; comms.
the Anga, 279 ; list, 399.
Angabahyas, ' 1 20.
Angad, a Sikh guru, 337 ; invented I
Gurumnkhi alphabet, 337.
Anga-mantras, mantras auxiliary to I
royal mantra of Narasimha. 189.
Anguttaranikaya, fourth section
Sutta Pitaka, 109, 391, 392.
Anhilvara-pa^an, 279, 280.
Anichchha, 64.
Animal-sacrifice, 3, 14, 41, 48, 21
354-
Animism, i, 2.
Aniruddha, a Vaishnava divinity, oim
the vyuAas, 98, 184.
Aniruddha, 369.
Aniruddha-vritti, 369.
Annam Bhatfa, 289, 370*
Annapurna U,^ 364.
Anquetil Duperron, 287.
An Shi-kao, 118.
Antakritadaid, one of the Jain AA|
400.
Antarakathdsahgraha, 281, 402.
Anu, 1. 1. of Kashmir Saivism, 198.
Anubhdshya, 287, 377.
INDEX
40
Anugttd, 97, 98. ,. ..
Anugraha, the grace of Siva, in Agamic
aaivism, 195.
Anuruddha, 393.
Anushtubh, a form of verse, 188.
Anuttaraupapdtikadaidy 400.
Anuvydkhydnay 236, 375.
Anuyogadvdra^ 400.
Apaddna, a work in the Buddhist Satta
Pitaka, 71, 108, 392.
A pa Deva, 285, 367.
Apadeviy 285, 296, 367.
Apardjita - niahdpratyahgird dhdranty
Aparamitdyus-sutra-sdstray 158, 390.
AJ>ariinitQyur dhdrant^ 399.
AJ>astamba Dharma Sutray 365.
AJ>astamba Grihya Sutra y 365.
Ajpastamba irauta Suiray 365.
Apastaniba Sulva Sutra y 365.
Appar, 196, 384.
Appaya Dikshita, 286, 295, 320, 380,
389 ; his works, 320, 367, 368, 380 ;
on the Vaishnava Samhitas, 181 ;
his title Dikshita, 358 ; his Sivdrka-
nianidtpikdy 350, 385 ; his religious
life,' 358.
Aj>tamimdihsdy 216, 219, 371, 403.
Aptaparlkshdy 219, 404.
Apurva, 125.
Arddhandkathdkoiay 405.
Aradhya Brahmans, 263.
Aradhyas, 263 n. i.
Aranya, one of the ten orders of Sah-
kara's sannyasTs, 1 74.
Aranyagdnay 19, 30.
Aranyakas, 23, 363 ; the name, 28 ;
character and contents, 28, 41 ; pur-
pose of, 29 f.; religion, 30 if.
Archaka, a word used for temple-
ministrant in S. India, 182, 349.
Archikay 18.
Ardha-Magadhi, a Jain literary dialect,
162.
Argaldstotray 357.
Arhat, the early Buddhist ideal, 105,
113.
Arikesari, 283.
Aijan, a Sikh guru, 337, 382 ; built the
golden temple at Amritsar, 337 ;
compiled the Granthy 337 ; put to
death by Jahangir, 338,
Armenian peoples, i.
Arsheya Brdhmatuiy 27, 363.
Artay 3.
Artha-paiichakay 246, 380,
Arthasahgrahay 367.
ArthaidstrUy 43, 73, 96.
Arthavada, 25.
Arulnandi Deva, 257, 258, 385.
Aruna-giri-Nathar, 347, 382.
Aruneya C/.y gSt 3^^
Aryadeva, 159, 397.
Aryaman, 2, 10.
Aryans, 4ff., 10, 15.
Aryaiiira, 156, 395.
AtyatdrdfragdAardstotra, 399.
Asada, 278, 280, 402.
A^dhara, 282, 405.
Asa-ki-'Wdry 341.
Asana, 253, 253 n. 2.
Asanga, 123, 160; his yrorks, 160 f.,
397-
Asceticism, 13, 22, 40, 47, 52 f., 57, 60.
Ascetics, 22 ; used for sannyasis, 40.
Asha, 3.
Ashes, used by Pa^upatas, 103, 196;
used by all Saivas for the sect-mark,
196.
Ashta Chhap, 316.
Ashtddhydyiy 42.
Ashtaprdbhritay j\o^,
Ashtasdhasriy 219, 371, 404.
Ashtasdhasrikd Prajridpdramitdy 273.
Ashtaiatiy 216, 219, 404.
Asht&znmlati Tattva, 295, 373.
Asmarathya, 128, 221.
A^oka, emperor of India, 66 ; his con-
version, 66 ; edicts, 44, 67, 72 ; propa-
ganda, 67, 72 ; missionaries, 67, 72 ;
favourite Buddhist texts, 72 ; build-
ings, 67, 72 ; laws against slaughter
of animals and animal sacrifice, 72 ;
vegetarianism, 72 ; religious tours, 72.
AlokdvaddnUy 395.
A^rama, one of the four forms of Hindu
life, 29, 40; these later form a series,
A^rama, one of the ten orders of Safi-
kara's sannyasis, 174.
ASrama £A, 95, 364.
Assam, 390.
Astronomy, 42.
A^vaghosha, a Brahman, who became
a Sarvastivadin Buddhist, 95, 108,
115; then a Mahayanist, 115; genius
and works, 115 f., 395.
Ai^vakranta, 356.
AJvaldyana Grihya Sutra, 365.
Ahfaldyana irauta Sutra, 365.
A^vamedha, 22.
A^vins, 2, 3 n. 1, 10.
4IO
INDEX
Atharvan ■■= Atharoaveda,
Atharvaiikhd U.^ 103, 364.
Atharvaiiras U, (A), 103, 146 n., 196,
364.
Atharvaiiras U. (B), 180, 206, 266,
364. 365. 373.
Atharvavedaf 23 ff., 363; relation to
Rik, 24 ; age of, 25 ; canonical posi-
tion, 25; religion of, 30 if., 363;
philosophy in, 51, 363; many new
Upanishads appended, 80; its man-
tras, 201 ; magic and ritual, 363.
Atheism, meaning of the term, 37;
examples of, 44, 47, 49, 60, 61.
Ativirarama Pandya, 347, 383.
Atmabodha U.^ 188, 364, 3^9.
Atman, the self, a name for the Abso-
lute, 32; philosophy of, 27, 32, 41,
51 ; identification of a divine and
human self, 52, 59; the Atman un-
knowable, 56 ; a subject without an
object, 56, 59 ; impersonal, 56 ; per-
sonal, 56; the A. is bliss, 57; all
else is sorrow, 57 ; 1. 1. in Vai^shika
system, 133; and in Nyaya system,
135; in both the conception of the
atman is richer than elsewhere, 135.
Ajmanuidsana^ 218.
Atma U.f 364.
Atreya Saldia of the Taittiriya school,
226.
Atri, 8.
Aturapratyakhyana, 400.
Audulomi, 128.
Aughars, 347.
Aupapdtikay 399.
Aurungzebe, 291, 343.
Austerities, 16, 59; given up in early
Buddhism, 63.
Avadana, a form of Buddhist tale, in
Pali Apadana, 108.
Avaddna-kalpalatd^ 395.
Avaddna-iatakoy 108, 395.
Avadhutas, 327.
Avadhuta U,^ 364.
Avalokite^vara, a Bodhisattva, 158 ;
his mantra, 212; transformed into
a goddess in China and Japan, 158;
a Dhyani'Bodhisattva, 273.
Avarana-bhahgavydkhydy 376.
Avaiyaka-sutra, 215, 399.
Avatara, lit. descent, the Hindu word
for a divine incarnation, 85 n. i.
A vesta, 2, 3.
Avyakta U,, 364.
Avyanga, the Zoroastrian girdle, 152.
Awadhi, a dialect* of Hindi, 333.
Ayodhya, 327, 329, 330.
Klba Lai, 334, 344.
]^ba Lalis, 334, 344.
Badami, 216.
Badaiayana, author of yedania-s
126, 128, 368.
Bahurlipa Tantras, 265.
Bahvricha U,^ 364.
Bdlabharaia^ 280, 403.
Balachandra, 405.
Bdlachariia, 144.
Baladeva, 287, 31 1, 377.
Balakpshna Bhaffa, 316^ 377.
Balanlma, or Saihkarshana, a h
of Krishna, 98.
Balarama Das, 311, 377.
Balehalli, 260.
Bana, 200, 205, 388.
Banarasi Dasa, 361, 405.
Bdni of Dado, 341 ; read only I
twice-born, 341.
Bam of Lai Das, 342.
Bdni of Ram Charan, 345.
Ban-jatra, 310.
Banwari Das, 342.
Bappabhattif 214, 401.
Barhaspatyas, 371.
Bdrhaspatya r., 268.
Barsom, twigs used in Zoroastrian
ship, 152.
Basava, a Lingayat leader, 360,
386.
Basaioa P., 264, 353, 387.
Baudhdyana Dharma Sutra, 365.
Baudhdyana GfihyarSiUra, 141,
the Pari^ishtas to it, 141, 373.
Baudhdyana Srauia SiUra, 305.
Baudhdyana Suha Sutra, 365.
Bauls, 312.
Beef, eaten by all in MahSbhdrata,
Benares. 260, 327, 329, 330, 334.
Benevolence, in Mah&yana Buddh
113.
Bengal, 274.
Bengali literature, 271, 396, 397,
30^, 310, 356, 378, 383, 389.
Beni, 323, 381.
Bemier, 291.
Bhadra A,, 193.
Bhadral^u, a Jain leader, 75 ; an
of canonical books and niryu
76, 400.
Bhadracharydl 396.
Bhagavadgitd, the Lord's Song, a Vi
nava episode in the McXdbhdf
INDEX
411
86-92, 97, 366, 373 ; central signifi-
cance, 86, 97 ; creates the first Hindu
theism, 87 ; brings release within
reach of all Vaishnavas, 97 ; i. e. to
all men and women of the four
castes, 87 ; three paths to release,
88; theology of the Gttd, 89; its
bhakti, 220, 243 ; secret of its power,
90 f. ; upholds the dharma, 89 ;
originally heterodox, 91 ; now ortho-
dox, 128; theories of its origin, 50,
91, 366 ; date, 78, 86, 366. Is there
Christian influence in it? 92; held
to be revelation of second grade
{smrt(i)y 173; forms part of the
Canon of the Vedanta, 1 73 ; influence
of the Gtidf 114, 128, 144, 145, 153;
commentaries, 171, 241, 242.
Bhagcevadvishayam^ 380.
fihagavan, Blessed Lord, 87.
Bhagavata (from Bhagavan), a devotee
of the Lord. Used of 6aivas, 82 n. i ;
used of Vaishnavas generally, 142;
used of a special group of Vaish-
navas, see Bhagavatas; used of a
singer-preacher in South India, 302.
Bhdgavata-bhdshyay by VishnusvamI,
338, 305» 375«
Bhdgavata-bhdvdrthadipikd^ 297, 374.
B hdgavata-laghu'tlkdy 375.
Bhagavata Mdhdimya^ 232, 372.
Bhagavata iP., 139, 372 ; diaracteristics,
229 f.; deals with Kpshna's youth,
229; a late work, 178; erroneously
attributed to Vopadeva, 231, 269,
359 ; the latest of the Puranas, 231 ;
date, 232; place of origin, 232; its
bhakti, 220, 229, 242; its eroticism,
230; the love of the gopis a symbol
of spiritual devotion, 230 ; sprang
from the Bhagavata community, and
is their chief scripture, 229, 233 ; its
immense influence, 220, 235, 269,
301, 302, 308, 345; tends towards
Sahkara's advaita Vedanta, 231.
Commentaries, 246, 304, 305, 316;
Braj translations, 317 ; Kanarese
translations, 303 ; Marafhi transla-
tions, 300 ; an anthology of its utter-
ances on bhakti, 302.
Bhagavatas, Smarta Vaishnavas, who
hold the equality of Vishnu and Siva,
142, 175, 181, 233, 298,* 301; their
unstable position between Smartas
and sectarians, 298; their mantra,
H3» I79> J 86, 235, 298; their sect-
mark, 298; Sampradaya, 327; their
Upanishad, 143, 181 ; their literature,
142 f., 179, 181, 233, 297, 373; the
Bhagavata P, their chief scripture,
233> 374; they are followers of
iSankara, 175, 181 ; they acknow-
ledge the five gods, 181 ; many are
temple-ministrants, 181, 233 ; hold
theSamuchchhaya doctrine, 221 ; their
temples, 298 ; their monasteries, 297 f. ;
a bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras
which claims to be a Bhagavata
work, 297 f.
Bhagavata S., 181, 236 n. i.
Bhagavata Sampradaya, 327.
Bhdgavata-tdtparya-nirnaya^ 236, 375.
Bhagavata temples, 233.
Bhagavati^ one of the Jain Angas, 399.
Bhagavat-^tra, 142.
Bhai Gur Das, 338, 382.
Bhai Gur Das Ki Wdr, 338, 382.
Bhai Mani Singh, 339.
Bhairava Tantras, 265.
Bhairavaydmala T,t 388.
Bhaishajyaraja, 158.
Bhakta Llldmrita^ 374.
Bhakta-mdld, 234, 239, 299, 317.
Bhaktamara-stotraj 205, 214, 401.
BhaktaparijHdy 400.
Bhakta Vijaya^ ■yj±,
Bhakti, 220; in Svetdhatara U,, 59;
in the Gitdy 88; in Bhdgavata P,y
229; in Rdmdnuja^ 230; in Bhdga-
vata Mdhatmycty 232; in the Vlra
Saiva system, 261 n.3, 264.
Bhakti-marga, the way to release by
devotion, 88.
Bhaktirasdyana, 384.
Bhaktiratndkara, 377.
BhaktiratndmritasindhUf 376.
Bhaktiratndvaliy 302, 375.
Bhakti school of the Sakta sect, 269,
359-
Bhalan, 356.
Bhdmati, 176, 222, 368.
Bhandarkar, Sir R. G., his theory of
Vasudeva, 50.
Bhanu Das, 374.
Bharadvaja, 8.
Bharadvaja, a title of Uddyotakara.
Bhdradv&ja Grihya sutra, 365.
Bhdradvdja irauta sutra, 365.
Bharata Chandra Rai, 356.
BharatharT'Vairdgyat 378.
Bharati, one of the ten orders of
Sankara*s sannyasis, 174, 304, 307*
Bharatitirtha, 286, 368.
Bharati Yati, 369.
412
INDEX
Bhdrgava Upapurdna^ 372.
Bhasa, 144.
Bha-sarvajna, 370.
Bhashd-parichchheda^ 370.
Bhaskaray said to have been Nimbarka*s
original name, 239 n. 6.
Bhaskara, 386.
Bhdskara-bhdshyay see Bhftskara-
charya.
Bhaskaracharya, author of a bheda-
bheda bhashya on the Veddnta-sutras^
221, 239 n. 6, 368; attacks Sankara
and the Pailcharatras, 22of.
Bhaskaranandanatha, initiate name of
Bhaskararaya, 358.
Bhaskararaya, a Right-hand Sakta
scholar, 192, 358, 389; seemingly
a Natiia, 192 ; lived at Tanjore,
192.
Bhasmajdbdla U.y 364.
Bhatta, i.e. Kumarila, 168.
Bhatta Bhaskara Mi^ra, 226.
Bhatta Dinakara^ 367.
Bhatta Dinakara^ 367.
Bhatta Dtpikd, 286, 367.
Bhatta Nilakantha, 359, 389.
Bhava, 149.
Bhavadevami^ra, 368.
Bhava Gane^a DTkshita, 369.
Bhdvand U.y 266, 358, 364, 389.
Bhdvdrtha Rdmdyafia, 374.
Bhavaviveka, 371, 397.
Bhavishya A, 139, 372 ; referred to in
Apastamba Dhamtasutra, 136; its
Brahma Parvan contains Saura
material, 140, 152, 390.
Bhayahara-stotray 214, 400.
Bhedabheda, dualistic monism, a form
of the Vedanta, 128, 221, 233, 255,
287, 326 n. 2, 332, 351 n. 4.
Bhelsari, 345.
Bhikshu, 52.
Bhikshuka U,^ 364.
Bhilmal, 280.
Bhima Chandra Kavi, 353, 387.
Bhoja, king of Dhara, 223, 279, 369.
Bhojaka B Ma^a, q.v.
Bhumi, t. t. in Mahayana Buddhism;
there were 10 bhumiSf or stages in
the Bodhisattva career, 113, 115,
160.
Bhuswidi Rdrndyatuiy 250, 329, 381.
Bhutaddmara T,y 272, 388, 398.
Bhiitani, the elements of the visible
world, 98.
BhutapurT Mdhdtmyay 246,
Bhutattu, 188.
Bhutavalya, lai.
Bhuti, one of the two aspects
Sakti of Vishnu, 184, 185.
Bhuvanehf€tri T,, a68.
Bibliolatry, 341, 342, 346.
Bihari Lai Chaube, 379.
Biharini Das, 378.
Bija, 201.
Bijak, 333, 337.
Bijjjala, 260.
Bilva, bael, 294.
Bilvamangala, 304, 375.
Binay Pattrikd, 381.
Bindu, 201.
Bindusara, a Maurya emperor, 75.
Birbal, 2^,
Birbhan, 334; his Adi Upadeiay
Christian influence recognizable
Bird'Worship, 43.
Bir Singh, 340.
Black YajuSf origin of the nanu
Samhitas and Brahmanas of
Aranyaka of, 30 ; Upanishads c
58, 79; Siitras of, 81, 141
Satarudrfya, 383.
Blood Chapter of Kalikd /'., 354.
Blood-sacnfice, 354.
Bodhayana, author of a Vi^ishtii
vritti on the Vedanta- siitras^
242.
Bodhi, the wisdom of the Enddhaa
BodhicharydvcUdrc^ ao8, 397.
Bodhisattva, one whose nature u
dom, destined to become a Bo
105, 112, 160, 208; advanced £
sattvas conceived like divinitie
dining nirvana, 113; great S
sattvas, 158; married celestial £
sattvas, 210; the Bodhisattva 1
the Mahaj^a, 113; advanced
ceptions, 209; the ten bhOmi
stages, in the career, 113, 115,
Bodhtsattvabhumi, Vijfianai^din
on the bhumis, 160, 395, 396.
Bodhisattvayogachdra Chtiu)^
396.
Bodhivafhsa, 392.
Bodies of the Buddha, 159, 273.
Boons, asked at the V^ic sacr
15-
Brahma, the Creator, 41, 49, 20
second stage of the Epics, 83 ; i
third stage, 92, 98 ; in the doctr
Vyuha, 98, 185 ; the Br^ma
and its literature, 148, 387; i
Trimurti, 148 f. ; his decline, i;
Brahmabindu U,^ 95, 364.
INDEX
413
BrahmacharT, the celibate student ; his
place in the A&ramas, 81.
Brahmdmrita-varshintj 368.
Brahman, (i) religious truth, 25 ; (2)
name of the Absolute, 32, 51 ; the
God of the Vedanta, 126; relation
to the world, 56, 127; inactive, 127;
identified with Vishnu, 86, 97.
Brahmanand, 378.
Brahmanas, the word, 25 ; rise of the
Brahmanas, 25 ff.; list, 27, 28; their
character, 27; their religion, 30 ff.;
philosophy in, 32, 5 ^ 363-
Brahman- Atman, 51 ; philosophy of,
52 ; spread slowly at first, 60.
Brahmdnda P.^ 139, 372, 389; its
royal genealogies of historical value,
137; Malayalim Tr., 347, 384; con-
tains Sakta material, 357.
Brahma P., 139, 371 ; contains a
Saura section, 226, 270, 389.
Brahmans, 20, 21, 36; education of,
31 ; in transmigration, 34 ; duties, 40 ;
in Epic become warriors, 49 ; their
share in creating the Upanishad
philosophy, 53.
Brahma S,, 308, 376.
Brahma Sampradaya, 327.
Brahma-suira-anulfhdsh}fa oiVsiUahhsLf
377-
Brahma-sutra-bhashyaj 222, 287, 368.I
Brahma-sutraSy the fundamental docu-
ment of the Vedanta, 126; written
by Badarayana, 126; a forerunner of
this work, 1 79.
Brahma U.^ 95, 364.
Brahmavaivarta P., 139, 179, 372 ;
the Krishna section is probably a
Nimbarkite interpolation, 240, 271,
376.
Brahmavtdyabharafta, 251, 286, 368.
Brahmavidya U., 95, 364.
Brahma-ydmala 71, 265.
Braj, the district of Mathura and
Brindaban, 316; the dialect of the
district, 316.
Braj Basi Dns, 317, 377.
Braj'bhakti'vildsa^ 310.
Braj literature, 297, 377, 379.
Brajvildsa^ 3J7» 377-
Branding, i.e. of the symbols of Vishnu
on the body, 186, 246, 321.
Brihaildranyaka^ 30, 363.
Brihaddranyaka U., 54, 55, 364.
Brihad Brahma S., 183, 246.
Brihajjdbdla U.y 364.
Brihaspati Smriiif 180, 366.
^r//5a/i" of Prabhakara, 168, 367.
Brihatkaipa, 400.
Brihat S.j 236 n. i, 390.
Brindaban, 305, 308, 309, 310.
Buddha, the, 55 ; life, 62 ; teaching,
63 ff. ; his doctrine of the soul, of
transmigration and of release, 65 ;
avoidance of metaphysical questions,
65 ; biographical material, 70 ; his
supposed previous births, 70 ; rever-
ence for the Buddha, 71 ; he becomes
a semi-divine being, 78, 155 ; almost
becomes an eternal god, 78, 114;
Buddha-images, no, in.
Buddhacharita^ 115, 394.
Buddhaghosha, 154, 393.
Buddhdlamkdra, 394.
Buddhas, many, no; become almost
like gods, 112 ; their omniscience
and perfections, 113; the previous,
70, no.
Buddhavamsay 70 n., 391.
Buddhdvatamsakasutra, 158, 160.
Buddh-Gaya, 62.
Buddhi, 1. 1. of Sankhya system, 130.
Buddhism, rise of, 62 ; earliest teaching,
63 ff. ; spreads to Persia, Turkestan
and China, 79, 103; Hinayana and
Mahayana, no, 112, 206; the Tri-
ratna, 271; killed by Islam, 271;
literature, 272, 390.
Buddhist art, no, in.
Buddhist bhakti, no-iii, 112.
Buddhist Canon, 64, 65-6 ; the Canon
as found in Ceylon, 68; in Pali, 68;
reduced to writing in first cent B. c,
68; the Sanskrit canons, 106, 107,
109.
Buddhist Councils, 65, 66, 67, 72, 108.
Buddhist devotion, see Buddhist bhakti.
Buddhist laity, 71.
Buddhist logic, 178, 225. .
Buddhist monks, 67, 69, 71, 113; in
Mahayana, become priests, 113.
Buddhist nuns, 6*jt 69, 71.
Buddhist pantheism, 274, 279.
Buddhist Patriarch, moves to China,
162.
Buddhist Sakta system, origin, 209 f. ;
exposition, 210; cult, 210; literature,
211 ff., 272, 397; aim of the system,
211 ; its theistic or pantheistic theo-
logy, 273; its doctrine that every
Buddha and every Bodhisattva has a
wife, 274; many ^akta monks and
nuns absorbed by the Chaitanya sect,
311.
414
INDEX
Buddhist Sanskrit, 105, 107, 110, 394.
Buddhist stupas, 1 10.
Buddhist symbols, 72, no.
Buddhist tantras, 210, 266, 273.
Buddhist theism, 273 f., 279.
Buddhist worship, 71, no; in Maha-
yana, 113.
Burial, 263.
Burma, 103, 275, 390.
Cambodia, 168, 207, 390.
Caste, 5, 17, 31 ; the four chief castes,
21 ; sub-castes and mixed castes, 31 ;
education of three highest castes, 31 ;
influence of in law and life, 40 ; in
the Epics, 49.
Celtic people, i.
Central Asia, 103.
Ceylon, 153; extra-canonical Buddhist
lit., written in Ceylon, I54f., 275.
Ceylonese Canon, see Buddhist Canon.
Chaitanya, founder of the Chaitanya
sect, 307 if. ; won by a Madhva
sannyasi, 303, 307 ; accepts Radha,
307 ; his preaching and singing, 307 ;
his converts, 307, 308 ; his journeys,
307 ; his death, 308 ; his influence,
303> .304> 305 ; his powers and per-
sonality, 308 ; his reading, 308 ; in-
fluence of his death in Bengal, 309 ;
mentioned in Vifvasdra T., 354.
Chaitanya Bhagavata^ 310, 377.
Chaitanyachandrodaya^ 310, 377.
C halt any acharita^ 376.
Chaitanya-charitdmrita^ 310, 377.
Chaitanyamahgaly 377.
Chaitaflya sect, accepts Radha, 307 ;
its philosophic position Bhedabheda,
308 ; hymns and Gaur Chandrika,
308 ; the six Gosvamis at Brindaban,
309 f. ; literature, 309 ff., 375 ; the
temples at Brindaban, 310; modifica-
tions of caste, 311 ; Gosvamis, 311:
the Vairagis and Vairaginis, 311;
many Buddhist monks and nuns
absorbed, 309, 311; their impurity,
311 ; temples and images, 312 ; Chai-
tanya, Advaita, and Nityananda wor-
shipped, 312; sanklrtan and nagar-
kirtan, 307 ; sanklrtan in the temples,
312 ; in houses, 312 ; influence of the
sect, 318.
Chaitya, a Buddhist hall, 71, 72;
becomes a temple, 1 1 3.
Chakra, circle, (i) a Sakta circle for
worship, 203, 355 ; (2) a supposed
centre of occult force in the body,
195, 201, 210, 213, 269.
Chakradhar, 248.
Chakradhar Charit, 380.
Chakra-puja, circle-worship, of
^aktas, 203, 204, aio, 315, 355.
Chalukyas, 215.
Chamarasa. 353, 387.
Chamars, Outcaste workers in leal
343.
Champakaireshthikaihdnakaf 401.
ChampQ, 353.
Chamunda, one of the names of
goddess, 203.
Chamnndaraya, 282, 404.
Chdmuiufardya P,y 282, 404.
Chanakya, 43.
Chandafftahdroshafta T,t 272, 37a
398.
Chan^a^tnaruta, 379.
Chanda-mamta MahacbSrya, 38a
Chanddviyyaya, 400.
Cban^, a name of the goddess, i
used also as e Chan4t'mdhdti
356.
Chamft, a Bengali epic, 257, 356.
Chandl Das, 273, 305, 307, 308, ;
378.
Chan^ika, 354.
Chan4i-tndhdtmyaj a section oft
Mdrkan4eya P, ; basis of Sakta i
150 f., 388; Gobind Singh hac
translated, 339 ; other Trs., 356, 3
use of the passage as a liturgy, 35
Chandi-mahgalj 390.
Chan4i'iataka, 150, 200, 388.
Chandragomin, 209, 398, 399.
Chandragupta, 43, 49, 66 ; said to l
been a Jain, 75.
Chandrahdsa A,, 193.
Chandrajtidna A,, 193.
Chaftdrakald 71, 268.
Chandrakirti, 208. 20^, 397.
ChandraprajHaptiy 166^ 219, 400, 4
Chandrasuri, 402.
Chandrikd, 375.
Chdhgdeva CAarifra, 380.
Chdhgdeva Pasashii^ 374.
Channa Basava P,, 353, 387,
Channa Sada^iva Yogi&vara, 387.
Channa Vpshabhendra Svami, 387.
Charaka, 95.
Charana, a Vedic school, 394.
Charananuyoga, fourth section of '.
gambara Secondary Canon^ 219.
Charan Das, 334, 344, 383.
INDEX
415
Charan Dasis, 334, 344, 382; Hindu
influence in the sect, 345.
C hardy amy a- Kdthaka Dharma-sutra ,
141.
Charitas, 278.
Chariydfitaka^ a book of previous lines
of the Buddha, 70, 392.
Charvakas, 371.
Charydcharya-viniichaya^ 398.
Charya-pada, one division of the con-
tents of the Samhitas, Agamas, Tan-
tras, 184.
Chatterji, J. C, 291 ; his Kashmir
Shaivism, 302.
Chattisgarh, 343.
Chatuhiarana, 400.
Chaiurvargachintdtfianij 226, 373.
Chaiurvimiatijinastuti^ 400, 402.
Chatuilokt Bhdgwatj 374.
Chaurdst Bdrtd, 317, 377.
Chaurdsi Paday 318, 377.
Chdvuti4ardya P.y 404,
Chhandas, 42.
Chhdndogya Brdhtriana^ 27, 28, 363.
Chhdndogya U., 54., 5*5, 364.
Chhedasiitras of Jain Canon, 400.
Chidambaram, 257.
Chidananda, 303, 375.
Child-marriage, 263.
China, 103, 118, 153 f., 207, 275, 391.
Chinese Buddhist Canon, 162, 275.
Chintya^ name of an Agama, 193.
ChitraMkhandin fishis, 98.
Chittars = Sittars.
Chittore, 306.
Chokamela, a Mahar, a Marathi poet,
302.
Christianity, in the Gitdy 92 ; in the
didactic Epic, 99.
Chronicles of Ceylon, found in Dipa-
vamsa and Mahavamsa, 72.
Chuddmaniy 217, 219, 404.
Chulikd U.i ^i&.j 364.
ChullavaggUy a section of the Buddhist
Vinaya, 69, 391.
Chundi-devi-dhdranty 399.
Churaui, 345.
Ch'Yao, 118.
Civil law, 40.
Colebrooke, 364.
Conjeeveram, 181, 268, 320, 347.
Contests of wit, held at close of sacri-
fices, 22.
Corea, 390.
Councils, Buddhist, see Buddhist Coun-
cils ; Jain, see Jain Councils.
Cow-pens, holy, 41.
Cow-worship, 43.
Creation in the Pancharatra jSaihhitas,
184 f.
Criminal law, 40.
Dadu, 334, 341, 382; his Bant, 341,
382 ; his disciples, 341, 382.
Dadu-dvara, 341.
Dadupanth, 334, 341, 381 ; literature,
341 ; rejects Outcastes, 341 ; ascetics
called DddupanthiSy laymen SevakSy
341 ; five orders of ascetics, 341 f. ;
restrictions on reading the Bdniy 341 ;
the gurumantra and the iabda^ 341 ;
the cult, 342.
Dadupanthis, the ascetics of the Dadu-
panth are so called, 341.
Ddkdrnavay 399.
Ddkim-jdla-sambara T,y 272, 398.
Dakshinachari, the right-hand section
of the Sakta sect, 268.
Dakshindmurti U,y 364.
Damodar Das, 378.
Damodarami^ra, 381.
Ddnakalpadrumay 402.
Ddnakeli'kaumudty 376.
Dancing in worship, 3T2.
Dandi, a Brahman sannyasi who carries
a dan4a^ a bamboo rod of a sym-
bolical and ceremonial character,
174 n. I.
Dara Shikoh, 285, 287, 344, 364.
Darbesh, 312.
Dariana, 124.
Dariana U,., 364.
Darian Prakdiy 380.
Dasa, slave, 5.
Da^abhumaka, a chap, in the Mahd-
vastUy no, 115, 390.
Daiabhumaka-sutray 160, 161, 275, 396.
Daiabhumtivaray 275, 396.
Da^abodha, 301, 374.
Daiapaddrthay I'jl,
Das&s, 4, 5.
Daiasdhasrika Prajndpdramitd sutruy
115.
Daiailokly 240, 376.
Da^ailokl-bhdshyay 376.
Daidirutaskandha, 400.
Daiavaikdlika-sutray 215, 399.
Da^namls, sannyasis of ten orders, 1 74.
Da4yus, 4.
Ddthdvamsay 393.
Dattatreya, 183, 190, 247; usually
represented as a sannyasi with three
heads, 248 ; the Manbhaus do not
recognize this figure, but call Datta-
4i6
INDEX
treya an incarnation of Krishna,
348.
Dattdtreya S,^ 183, 349, 380.
Dattatreya Sampradaya, 348, 337.
Dattatreya 869!, 190; literature, 190.
Datt&treya ^/., 349, 364, 380.
Daiva Safhgaha, 404.
I)aya Bal, 383.
Dayaram, 317, 378.
Death, repeated death in the other
world, 33, 35, 53.
Dehn, 301.
Devabhadra, 378, 379, 401.
Devacharya, 375.
Devadasis, women of bad repute who
sing and dance in the temple-cult,
333.
Devagamastotra^ 316, 403.
Devaki, mother of Krishna, 100.
Devdram^ Canon of the hymns of the
Tamil Saiva poets called The Three,
256; set to Dravidian music, 356;
sung in the temples, 356.
Devarddhi, 163; works, 164, 401.
Deva^rman, 394.
Devasuri, 335.
Devatadhyaya Brahmana, 363.
Devendragani, 378.
Devendrastava^ 400.
Devendrasuri, 381, 403.
Devi, goddess ; the goddess of the Sakta
sect, 1 50 ; symbols used in her wor-
ship, 393 n. 2 ; sometimes represented
by a snake coiled round the liiiga,
394 n. I.
Devi Bhdgavata Upapurdna, a Sakta
work, 326, 369, 359, 373,* 389; date,
269.
Devt- mdhdtmya^ an episode in Mdrkan-
4eya /*., 150 : see Chandi-Mdhat-
mya.
Devi U.J 367, 364.
Devl-ydmala 7"., 365.
Dhamma, Pali for dharma, 40.
Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta^ 70 n.
Dhammakitti, 393.
Dhamniapada^ a book of Buddhist
verse, 71, 393; comm. ascribed to
Bnddhaghosha, 393.
Dhammapala, 155.
Dhamma-sahganij 393.
Dhanapala, 278, 379, 401.
DhanI Dharm Das, 382.
Dhanna, 338.
Dhanyakumdracharitra^ 405.
Dhanyaidlicharitray 403.
Dhara, 283.
Dharani, a Buddhist word for spell,
eouivalent to the Hindu mantxa, i^S,
100, 312 ; how to use a dharan!, ai3.
Dharma, definition of, 38, 39 f. ; begin-
nings of, 27; expounded in Kann
Mim^msa, 125; name of a god, 41,
49, 100 n. 6.
Dhanna, worshipped in Bengal, 371;
literature pf the cult, 271.
Dharma Das, 335.
Dharmagupta school of Hina^na
Buddhism, 156, 395 ; their ^i^iiuiui-
krafnana-siitra, 156, 395; translated
into Chinese and Tibetan, 207 ; their
Vinaya in Sanskrit, 156 ; in ChmeK,
156.
Dharmakaya, one of the bodies of a
Buddha, 159.
Dharmaklrti, 398*
Dharma-man^ poems, 371 f.
Dhamidmfitay 283, 405.
Dharmapada, Sansk. for Dhafnmapada\
in Chinese, 155.
Dharmas, the Nine, of Nepal, 275.
Dharmasagara, 360, 403.
Dharma-^tras, 40.
Dharma-sQtras, 38 ff., 365; date, 38;
contents, 39 f. ; modification of, 8a
DhdtU'keUhdf 393.
Dhruva Das, 378.
Dhyana, meditation ; contemplative
power, 374,
Dhydnabiftdu C/; gSt 3^4>
Dhyani-Bodhisattva, 373, 274.
Dhyani-Buddha, 273, 274.
Diagrams, representing divinities, 393.
Dialogues, 22.
Didactic Epic, 85 ff., 92 ; arose in N.E.
India, 85; compass, 85; oontents,
86 ff., 95.
Digambara, a Jain sect, 75, 119, 162,
259 ; Digambaras and the original
Canon, 76, 120, 121, '218, 360;
Digambara Secondary Canon, 218,
283 ; Digambiua literature, 120,
165(1,215,281,360; the Digambaia
categories, 360.
Dlgha Nikaya, first division of the
Buddhist Sutta Pi^aka, 70, 71, 391,
393.
Dignaga, a Buddhist logician, 135.
Dik, 1. 1. of Vai^shika system, 133.
Diksha, initiation, 167, 204; among
Vira Saivas, 282 ; among ^Lktas,
358.
Din Ilahi, 29 1.
Dioskouroi, 2.
INDEX
417
kara, 273.
amsa, 155, 393.
A., 193.
Igama, Sansk. for Dlghanikaya,
; in Chinese, 155.
itamas, 9.
incarnation y first among Vaish'
5, 84 f. ; later among Saivas, 147.
vaddna, 108, 395.
dev, 234; vernacular for Jfiana-
I q. V.
oba, 234, 302 ; vernacular for
leSvara, q. v.
Stic ceremonies, 23.
ayana Srauta Sutra^ 365.
da, author of a Vi^ishtadvaita
>hya on the Veddnta-sutrasy 171.
adl, 49, JOG n. 6.
ia Bhashya, 351, 386.
la land, i.e. the Tamil country,
246.
la Veda, 379.
ian music, 241.
I, t. t. of Vai4eshika system, 133.
inuyoga, third section of Digam-
Secondary Canon, 219.
asamgrahay 282, 404.
ivdday a lost Jain book, 400.
Ram, 345.
,64.
nta, t. t. of PaSupata system,
Das, 343, 382.
, a goddess, celebrated in the^^
:, 149 : called the sister of
hna, 149 ; called Uma, the wife
iva, 1 50 : see Uma ; also called
idi, 150 : see Sakta sect ; one of
ive gods, 179.
iatandma Stotra, 354.
ti-farUodhana-dhdraniy 399.
sasa T„ 268.
sdnuprekshd, 403.
, dualism, a form of the Vedanta,
287.
''dvaita-siddhdnta-sctuka , 376.
a, Dwarka, in Kathiawar, 100,
Vamana, 84 n. 2 ; one of Vishnu's
nations, 85 n. i.
ka, t. t. of Vai^eshika system,
nware pots, representing divini-
293.
ion, the beginnings were priestly,
S, 27; at first oral, 8, 18, 25;
then literary, 19; education of the
three castes, 31.
Ego : Buddhism teaches that all things
are lacking in an ego, 64.
Ekadandis, ^ankara's Dandis (174 n. i)
are so called in contrast with Sri-
Vaishnava Sannyasis, who carry a
triple rod, 243 n. i.
Ekdkshara U.^ 364.
Ekangas, Sri- Vaishnava ascetics who are
not Brahmans.
Ekantada Ramayya, 260.
EklingjI, 146.
Eknath, a Mara (hi poet, 250, 300, 302,
,^22, 374.
Ekndihi Bhdgwai, 374.
Ekorama, one of the five original
Lingayat ascetics, 260.
Ekottaragama, Sansk. for Anguttarani-
kaya, 109; in Chinese, 155.
Elephanta, 149 n. 8.
Epics, 44 ff. ; 83 ff.
Eroticism, 203, 204, 210.
Eschatology, 15, 23, 33*ff., 41, 44, 48.
Eternity of sound, 290 n. 2.
Etherealized body, a result of austerities,
59-
Etymology, 42.
Excommunication, 40.
Fa Hien, 154.
Family, patriarchal, i.
Fana, 331.
Fathers = Ancestors, 23.
Fire-cult, 41, 43.
Fish, one of Vishnu's incarnations,
85 n. I.
Five Buddhas, 273.
Five gods, worshipped by Smartas, 1 79,
293 ; rise of the custom, 1 79 f. ; time,
206; significance, 180; author, 176,
179; worship of, 178, 179.
Five MS., i.e. viadya (wine), mamsa
(meat), matsya (fish), wwt/ra (parched
grain), maithuna (coition), 210, 355.
Former Buddhas, see Previous Buddhas.
Four Noble Truths, the, of Buddhism,
63.
Four Sampradayas, 327.
Fourteen Siddhanta ^astras, 258.
Full Lingayats, 262.
Full Moon sacrifice, 22.
Funeral ceremonies, 16, 39, 40.
Ganadveiadlpikdy 376.
Ganapati = Gane^
Ganapati'tdpatiiya U,^ 189, 206.
E e
4i8
INDEX
Ganapati U,, 206, 364, 390.
Ganapatya, the sect which worships
Ganapati or GnneSa, 206; the sub-
sects, 270 ; their Trimurti, 149 ;
their literature, 206, 270, 390 ; their
theology, 206 ; their sect-mark, 270 ;
their mantra, 270 ; their worship,
270.
Ganas, 19.
Gan4avyuhaj 158, 275, 396.
Gandhahasiimahdbhdskya, 216, 2 1 9,
403-
Gandharan art, iii.
Gane4a, the centre of the Ganapatya
sect, i49i 206; one of the five gods,
179, 206, 301 ; symbols used in his
worship, 293 n. 2.
Gane^-Khanda of Brahmavaivarta P.,
271.
Ganeia 5*., 183, 206.
Ganeia Upapurdna, 226, 270, 390.
Ganeia-ydmala 7"., 265.
Gaiga, 47.
Gangadhara, 270, 390.
Ganges, 16, 47 ; Ganges water used in
worship, 294.
GahgeSa, 224, 370, 370 n. i.
Gauinath, 235.
Ganitavidydy 400.
Garbas, songs in praise of the Devi,
356.
Garbha U.y 364.
Gargya, 146.
Garib Das, 334, 345 ; his Guru Granth
Sahib, 345.
Garib Dasis, 334, 345 ; only the twice-
born received as ascetics, 345.
Garnda, 48.
Garuda /*., 139, 178, 372; a Smarta
manual, 178 f., 206, 372; contains a
passage on Surya, 206 ; a passage on
Gnne^a, 206, 390.
Garuda U,, 364.
Gdtkdsahasrty 403.
Gdthasahgraha, 398.
Gaudapada, author of Sdhkhya-kdrikd-
bhdshya, 176, 369.
Gaudapada, the advaita Vedantist,
170 f., 364.
GaudT, 205.
Gaurdhgdshtaka, 376.
Gaur Chandra, 308.
Gaur Chandrika, 308, 312.
Gautama Dharfna-suira, 80, 365.
Gautama, the Buddha, 55, 62, 273, 274 ;
see the Buddha.
Gautamiya S., 240, 305, 376.
Gayatri, 151, 390.
Gdyatri'bhdshya, 378.
Ghata, pot, used in Sakta worship, :
Ghazi Das, 545.
Gherafufa S., 348, 384.
Ghuman, 299.
Giri, name of one of the ten order
^ankara's sannj^is, 174.
Giridhar, 322.
Giridharaji, 316, 317, 377,
Giridhar Kabraya, 382.
Giid, i. e. BhagiavadgUdj q. v.
Gitdbatl^ 381.
Giid'bh­a of Madhva, 243, ;
of Ramanuja, 379 ; df Vuh^of?
375-
Gitd Gffoinday 238, 378.
Gitdrtha-saiuprahay 241.
GobhUa Grihya Sutra^ 365.
Gobind Singh, the last Sikh gnni,
382 ; creates the Khal^ 339,
his Granth, 339 ; his Jlap SdM^
n. 4.
God, in early Upanishads> 55!
verse Upanishads, 58.
Gods, of jRii, lofT. ; position of \
gods weakening, 21, 3 a.
Gokul, 100.
Gokulnath, 317, 377.
Golden Temple at Amritsar, the ob
Sikh shrine, 337 ; the worship, 3
Goloka, cow-place ; the highest hei
the heaven of Kf ishijAy ace. to I
^ barka, 240.
Gommatasdra, 282, 405.
Gommate^vara, 282.
Gondhal, a dance in honour of thcj
dess, 356.
Gopala, an epithet of Krishna, 50.
Gopala Bhatta, 309.
GopdUi'Sahasrandmay 339, 375.
Gopdla-tdpantya C/., 189, 337, 339,
375-
Gopatha Brdhmatia, a3, 363, 364, \
Gopichandana, a white clay used
making the sect-mark of the Bh
vatas, 234, 298.
Goptchandana [/., 234, 364, 373.
Gopis, milkmaids, of Brindaban, (
panions of Krishna in dance, s
and sport, 229, 330, 314.
Gorakhnath (Gorakshanatha), 223,
384 ; a Yogi, founder of the Kinp
Yogis, 253; date, 354; believed
to live in the Himadayasy 348 ; '
shipped in many temples in N. Ii
253; his Sanskrit works, 254;
INDEX
419
Yoga, 223, 253 f.; worshipped in
Gorakhnathi temples^ 347 ; in the
temple of Gorakhpur a shrine to his
memory, 347.
Gorakhnathis (Gorakshanathis), a sect
of PaSupata Saivas, 190, 384; pro-
bably derived from the Nathas, 192;
closely allied to the Kapalikas, 253 ;
date of foundation, 253; their temples,
347; Gorakhnath worshipped and
animals sacrificed, 347 ; Kanphata
Yogis, 348 ; their mantra, 348 ; their
literature, 254, 348 ; their lack of
interest in yoga, 348.
Goraksha, a name of Siva, 253 ; also
Sanskrit name of Gorakhnath, 254.
Goraksha-gtidy 384.
Goraksha-kalpa, 384.
Goraksha-kaumudi^ 384.
Goraksha-paddhati, 384.
Goraksha-patichaya, 384.
Gora/isha'Sahasrandmay 384.
Goraksha-iataka, 254, 348, 384.
Gosvami, 309, 311.
Gosvami Sri Purushottamaji, 316.
Gotama, 9n.
Govardhana, name of a hill in Braj;
name of a maiha, monastery, in
Purl, founded by Sankara, 174, 297.
Govinda-bhdshya^ 287, 311, 377.
Govinda Das, 311, 376.
Govindananda Sarasvati, 369 n. i.
Graha-ydmala Zl, 265.
Grdmageyagdfta, 19.
Grammar, 42 ; schools of, 80.
Grant h or Grant h Sahib ^ the sacred
book of the Sikhs, 299, 300, 338 ;
called also the Adi Granthy 339,
382 ; contents, 338 ; compiled y
Guru Arjan, 337 ; uses, 338. Gobind
Singh bids the Sikhs take.the Granth
for their guru, 339; the worship of
the Granth is part of the Sikh cult,
340> 341-
Granth of the Tenth Guru, 339, 382;
used for worldly ends, 339.
Greeks, 78.
Grihastha, householder, q.v.
Gj-ihya-sutras, 38 f., 365; date, 38;
contents, 39, 140.
Gritsamada, 8.
Gujarat! literature, 297, 306, 317, 319,
35<5, 360, 378, 390.
Guna, (i) t. t. of Sahkhya system,
185 ; (2) of Vai^eshika, 134; (3) of
the theology of the 6akti of Vishnu,
184.
Gunabhadra, 217, 404.
Guna-body, 185.
Gunachandra, 278, 401.
Gunakdraftdavyuha, 274, 275, 397.
Gunaratna, 360, 401.
Gupta empire, 122, 123, 136.
Gur Das, 382.
Guru, i.e. Prabhakara, 168.
Guru, religious teacher; held to be
God, first among ascetics, then
among laymen, 167, 186; among
Buddhists, 210; held to be the
Buddha, 210; among VTra l^aivas,
261.
Gurudeva, 387.
Gurudvaras, 340.
Guru Granth Sahib, 345,
Gurumukhi, an alphabet invented for
Nanak*s hymns, 337.
Guruparampara, succession of gurus,
298.
Gurusthala Jahgamas, 262.
Guru-worship, 262, 336, 338, 346.
Gutkd, 382.
Gydn Prakdiy 382.
Gydn Samudra, 382.
Hala, 165, 215.
Halli^, 144.
Hamsa U,, 95, 364.
Handal, 340.
Handalls, 340.
Hanuman, 48; temples of Hanuman,
331.
Hanuman Ndtaka^ 329, 381.
Haoma, 3.
Har Gobind, a Sikh guru, 338.
Haribhadra, 214, 278, 280, 360, 371,
383, 401-
Haribhakti-rasdyana, a Madhva work
on devotion, 303, 375.
Haribhakti'Vildsa^ 309, 376.
Hari Das, 378.
Haridasis, 302, 318; Haridasi litera-
ture, 378.
Haridra Ganapati, 270.
Harihara, 143, 264.
Hariharananda Bharati, 355.
Hariharananda SvamI, 389.
Harikatha, 302.
Harikathdmritasdra,QxHarikathdsdray
303, 375. "
Harilild, an abstract of the Bhdgavaia
Py 234, 374.
Haripdthf Jnane&vara's, 235, 374;
Eknath*s, 300, 374.
E e ii
420
INDEX
Harishena, 403.
Hdrtta ^., 246.
Harivamia^ a Parana, 139, 371,372;
recognized as last section of the
MBH,f 100 ; date, 140, 143 ; life of
Krishna appended to royal genealo-
gies, 138; gives much space to
Kpshna legend, 143 ; contains hymns
to Durga, 140, 387 ; teaches the
equality of Vishnu and Siva, 142, 181;
possibly a Bhagavata P., 143; con-
tents, 143 f. ; became attached to the
Makdbhdrata, 144; contains Sakta
material, 150.
Harivaihia P, (Jain)', 217, 217 n. 2;
218, 219, 404.
Hari VamSa, 318, 378.
Harivyasa Muni, 305, 376.
Har Rai, 340.
Harsha, 205.
Hatha'Sahketa-chandrikd, 384.
Hatha-yoga, the name of a new Yoga,
taugnt by Gorakhnath, 253, 348.
Hatha-yoga, 254, 348, 384.
Hatha-yoga-pradipikd, 348, 384.
Hayagrtva £/"., 364.
Heavenly gods, 1,2.
Hellenic peoples, i.
Hemachandra, 277, 278, 279 f., 401.
Hemadri, 226, 373.
Henotheism, 15.
Heramba, a name of GaneSa, used by
Buddhists as well as Hindus, 270.
Heramba-Ganapati, 270.
Hermits, 29, 31 ; see Vanaprastha,
Vaikhanasa.
Heruka, 272.
Heruka T., 272, 398.
He-vajra T,, 272, 398.
Himalayas, 103.
Hmayana Buddhism, 103, 110, tii,
118.
Hinayana literature, 64, 67-72, 104-
10, 118, I54fr., 161,207,393.
Hind! literature, 296, 297, 299, 305,
316, 31 7» 333, 336, 339, 34i, 343 ff-,
361, 381, 382.
Hindu nuns, 129^
Hindu people to-day, 292.
Hindu philosophies, 122 ff. ; the founda-
tion texts, 123; date, 123.
Hindu sects, 122.
Hinglaj, 348.
Hiouen Tsang, 177, 207, 208; just
escaped being sacrificed to Durga,
203.
HiranyakeiT Dharma Sfitra^ 365.
Iliranyakeit Gtihya Sutra ^ 365.
Hiranyakeit Srauta Suira^ 365.
Hit-chaurasi-dhdmy 378.
Hit-ji, 318.
Horse-sacrifice, 14, a a.
Hotri, 6, 7, 14, 17, 19, ao.
Householder, one of the fear aim
29, 40, 81.
Hring, 201.
Hum, 201.
Human sacrifice, 203, 354.
Hung, 201.
Huvishka, a Koshan king, 103.
Hymns, of J^igveda, see Rigveda,
H3rpnotic trances, in Buddhism,
211.
Hypnotism, 61.
Idolatry renounced, 326, 359.
Images, first mention of, 41; ]
common, 48 ; images of divinitl
sexual union, 265 ; images in Si
worship, 293.
Image-worship, 50, 51 n. ; unorthc
50.
Immortality, i, 15.
Incantations, t6, 43.
Incarnation, divine, 41, 47 ; ina
tions of Vishnu, 84, 85, 87, 99,
India, 2, 3, 10, 11, la^ 15, 47, 49.
Indo-European, race, i ; langnag
6 ; religion, i ; cnlture, i ; literatui
Indo-Iranian people, a ; religion, 2
Inheritance, 40.
Initiation, 31.
IrupdvirupatkUf 258, 385.
I^, Lord, 58.
lid U.y 55, 58, 364-
I4vara, Lord, God, 58 ; t. t. of
Yoga system, 13a; t. t. of N
system, r34.
livara Gitd^ 358.
I^vara Krishna, also called Vxnd
vasin, author of the Sdhkhya-km
_ 1 29, 368 ; his date, 1 39.
Ihara'pratyabhijfia-kdrtkds, 259.
TSvara Pun, 303, 307.
livara S.t 183, 246.
I4var Das Nagar, 343.
Italic peoples, i.
ItivuttakOj 393.
I Tsing, 307, ao8, aia.
Jdbdla U.J 95, 358, 364.
Jd^&li £/., 364.
Jadunandana Das, 311.
INDEX
42,1
, 289, 371.
Lh, 307.
idariyogamdld^ 403.
Das, 343, 383.
ma, 312.
•, 338.
367.
Bhdrata, 304.
Grihya Sfitra, 365.
Srauta Sutra, 365.
m Brdhmana, 27, 28.
m - nydya - mala - vistara , 285,
va-sutra-bhckhyaj 367, 377.
I'a Upanishad Brdhmarm^ 27,
119.
jticism, 74.
le word, 74.
kavdrtika, 404.
ntdirama, 404.
kti, 120.
on, 5^^ Svetambara Jain Canon,
ncils, 75.
73 ff. ; older than Buddhism,
he early system, 74; atheism,
iceticism, 74; souls in elements,
hirhsa, 74; the two communi-
^5, 119; expansion in north
juth, 119; little influenced by
m, 213; 6akta yoga present
)t prominent, 213 ; decline, 359.
y, 74-
rary dialects, 162.
:rature, 75 ff., 119, i2of., 162,
77, 398; popular literature in
It, 165; in vernaculars, 228.
ic, 178, 213, 225.
harashtri, 162.
»ks, 74» 75, 119-
IS, 74, 119.
;ide, 74.
eism, 278; a work written
;t it, 282.
thakaras, 71, 120 n. i, 216.
ship, 75, 120.
ga, 213.
an Asokan edict, 77.
in, 48.
•jjpaprajflaptif 215, 400.
.knis, 336.
I, 260, 261, 262, 263; two
s of Jahgama, 262.
luddhism carried to Japan, 168,
,9^-
,^^>. 338,34'.
^'^^ 339 "• 4-
Jdiaka, a book of previous lines of the
^ liuddha, 70, 71, 393, 393; their
influence, 108, no, 113.
Jdtakamdldy of AryaSura, 156, 395,
Jdtakatthavannandj 393.
Jatayus, 48.
Java, 168, 391.
Jayadeva, 338, 305, 307, 308, 378 ; his
date, 238.
Jayadevami&ra, 371.
Jayadhavaidy 217, 219, 404; its ttka,
217 n. 2.
Jayauanda, 377.
Jayanta, 370.
Jayaratha, 386.
Jayasiihha, 279.
Jayaiihuyanastotra, 279, 401.
Jayatirtha, '237, 375.
Jayavallabha, 215, 401.
Jejakabhukti, 336.
Jenghiz Khan, 377.
Jetalpur, 318.
Jina, 74.
Jinachandra, 401.
Jinadatta, 280, 402.
Jinakathe, 317, 403.
Jinakirti, 360, 402.
JindksharamdUf 404.
Jinamandana, 360, 402.
JinasafhkUdt 360, 405.
Jinasena (a), author of Harivamia /*.,
217, 404.
Jinasena (b), pupil of Virasena, author
of part of Adi P, (Jain), 217, 404.
JIva, 309, 377.
Jtvdbhigamay 400.
Jivaka-Chtntdmanty 380, 401, 404.
Jivaviydra, 401.
Jtv Dasd, 378.
Jnanachandra, 177, 370.
Jnana Das, 311, 377.
Jnanadeva « Jnane^vara.
Jndnddi-sddhana, 399.
Jhdndmrita^ 384.
Jriana-pada, one of the four divisions of
the contents of Agamas, Samhitas,
and Tantras, 184.
Jiidnaprasthdnaidstra, 107, 108, 394.
Jiianasagara, 360, 403.
Jndna-Vasishtham, 396, 373.
Jfianeivara, 334, 239, 348, 253, 398,
299, 374, 384 ; a true Bhagavata,
235; amonist, 334, 300.
Jndtteivarit a Marathi commentary on
the GUdf 234, 248, 296, 374; teaches
the advaita system and yoga, 334.
422
INDEX
jaatadharmakatha^ one of the Jain
Augas, 399.
Jot Prasad, 336.
Jnnagadh, 306.
Jyotisvati T,, 268.
Kablr, 284, 291, 323, 326, 327, 330,
347, 381 ; Islam and Hinduism both
contributed to Kabir, 331 ; influence
of Sufiism, 331 ; Ramananda his
teacher, 332 ; banished from Benares,
332 ; relation of Hindu and Muham-
madan elements in his mind, 332 ;
denoimces idolatry, 333; condemns
divine incarnation and asceticism,
333. Is there Christian influence in
his poems? 333; a strict theist, 333;
conception of God, 333 ; character
of his poetry, 333 ; critical research
needed to distinguish his genuine
poems from later work, 333 ; the
By'ak, 333; poems in the Granthy
333* 33^ J sects which arose from his
influence, 334, 347 ; common features
of these sects, 334.
Kabiipanth, 334, 335, 381 ; monks and
nuns, 335 ; two sub-sects, each under
a Mahant, at Iknares and at Chattis-
garh, 335 ; many monasteries, 335 ;
cult, 335 ; special ceremonies, 336 ;
worship of the Mahant, 336 ; Kabir
called an incarnation of the Supreme,
336 ; sect-mark, mantra, rosary, 336.
Kabittdbati^ 381.
Kach, 339 n. i.
Kadchd, note-book, of Govinda Das,
376; of Murari Gupta, 376.
Ka-gyur^ the first section of the Tibetan
Buddhist Canon, also called Kanjur,
267.
Kaivadya Dipikd^ 380.
Kaivalya, t. t. of Sankhya system, 131,
132.
Kaivalya-sdra, 387.
Kaivalya U,^ 103, 364.
Kakshivan, 9n.
Kala, t. t. of Vaikshika system, 133;
t. t. of Pancharatra system, 185.
Kdldgnirudra U.y 196, 364.
Kdlajiidna 71, 388.
Kalakacharya, 120, 400.
Kdlakdchdryakathdnaka, 401.
Kalakshepam, 302.
Kdlanidhi T., 268.
Kalidasa, 217.
Kalighat, 203 n. i, 354.
Kdlikd P. or 7., 354, 372, 389.
Kalisamtarana U.<, 364.
Kallata, 386.*
Kdlottara 71, 265.
Kalpalatdy 360, 403.
Kalpas, 146.
Kalpasutra (of the Jains), 163, 360,
400.
Kalpa-sutras, 38, 50, 365.
Kalpdvaiaihsikdy 400.
Kalpika, 400.
Kalydftamandira'Stoira, 165, 400.
Kama, the god of love, 41, 47, 49.
Kamachiamma, 268.
Kdmadhenu 71, 389.
Kamakhya, a famous Sakta temple in
Assam, 354.
Kamarupa, 354.
Kamika^ name of an Agama, 193, 194,
264.
Kamsa, 100, 100 n. 4.
Kanada Ka^yapa, 369.
Kanaiya, 340.
Kanaka Das, 375.
Kanakamuni, one of the previous
Buddhas, 72, 273.
Kanarak, 269 n. 5, 270.
Kanarese Literature, 216, 228, 260,
264, 281, 282, 283, 296, 303, 3t7»
353, 385-
Kafichi-Appar (xii cent.)} 256; (xriii
cent.), 347, 385.
Kdnchi'purdnam, 347, 351, 383.
Kanda Purdnam, 256, 385.
Kaiiga, ZZ^n.!.
Kanishka, a Kushan king, 95, 108^
no. III.
Kanjur^ see Ka-gyur.
Kannudaiya Vajlalar, 351, 386.
Kanphata Yogis, followen of Gora-
khnath, 347; their mantra, 348;
their ornaments, 348; their worship
of Gorakhnath, 348 ; their yoga, 348.
Kanthairuti U., 95, 364.
Kanva, 8, 10.
Kapala-Kun^ala, a Kapalika nun, 193.
Kapale^vara, skull-god, an epithet of
Siva, used in Kapalika sect, 192.
Kapalikas, skull-men, a gronp or sect
of PaSupata Saivas, 190, 192, 384;
date, 192 ; probably merely an order
of ascetics, 192 ,* their tnudrSi^ yj^
n. 3 ; there were nuns as wdl as
monks, 192, 252 ; closely allied to
left-hand S§kus> I9a> a5a : pnctise
Sakta worship, 252 ; have foal rites
of their own, 211, 352; practise
l§aktayoga, 192, 252; show erotidsm
INDEX
423
also, 252 ; the modem Aghoris are
the old Kapalikas, 347.
Kapilavastu, birthplace of the Buddha,
62.
Kapishthala-Kathas, a school of the
Black Yajus, 27.
Kapishthala-Katha Samhita, 27, 28.
Karana^ name of an Agama, 193.
Karanannyoga, second section of Di-
gambara Secondary Canon, 219.
KdrandavyHha^ 158, 274, 396.
Karikas, 116, 124.
Karma, def., 34 : see Transmigration
and Karma ; t. t. of Vaiseshika
system, 134; 1. 1. of Agamic ^aivism,
one element in PaSa, 195.
Karmagranthas, 281, 402.
Karma-marga, the way to release by
works, 88,
Karma Mlmamsa, exegesis of the sacri-
ficial Veda, 37, 125, 220, 367;
atheistic, 37, 60, 61, 125; earliest
form of, 37 ; early use, 39, 79 ;
classic form in Jaimini*s Sutras,
1 25 flf. ; an earlier document, now
lost, probably served as model for
earliest Brahma- sutr a, 79; is the
special system of the orthodox twice-
born, 37, 126; its teaching, 44,
1 25 ff. ; does not teach a philosophy,
1 25 ; yet metaphysical ideas implied,
125 f. ; no doctrine of release in the
Sutras, 1 26 ; but it appears in Pra-
bhakara and Kumarila, 169; has no
order of ascetics, 1 26 ; literature,
125, 135, 168 f., 220, 285; sacrifice
decays but the Mimariisa survives,
170; the Samuchchhaya doctrine,
221 ; prakar ana-grant has an off-
shoot from the Mlmamsa, 295.
Karma-iataka, 108, 395.
Karma-yoga, restraint of works, 88.
Karnataka, the country where Kanarese
is spoken, 259.
Karohana, 146.
Kartabhajas, 312.
Kartha, 339 n. i.
Karttikeya, 47.
Karundputuiarika , 395.
Karwar, 146.
Kaiakritsna, 128.
Kashmir, 103, 108, 193.
Kashmir Saivas, 191, 193, 198, 258,
352, 385; , Agamic Saivas, 198;
followers of Sank ara, 175; the school
has declined, 352.
KaHkd, 367.
KaSyapa, 273.
Ka^yapa Matanga, 118.
Katha, 282.
Kdthaka Brdhmana, 27, 38.
Ka(hakas, a school of the Black Yajus,
37, 58.
Kdthaka Samhitd, 27, 28.
Kdthaka Upanishad, 58, 60, 364.
Kathdkoia, 403.
Katharudra U., 364.
Kathdsdrdmrita, 374.
Kathairuti C/,, 364.
Kdtha Upanishad ^ Kdthaka Upanu
shad.
Kathdvatthu, 393.
Kathiawar, 162.
Kdtydyana irauta Sutra, 365.
Katyayaniputra, author of the Sarvasti-
vadin philosophy, 107.
Kaula-marga, the system of the Kaulas,
266.
Kaulas, a sect of Saktas, 266.
Kaula U,, 266, 358, 364, 389.
Kaurashya, one of the earliest Lakuli&a
ascetics, 146.
KaushUaki Aranyaka, 30.
KaushUakt Brdhtnana, 27, 28, 363.
Kaushltaki U,, 54.
Kaushitakins, a school of the Rigveda,
27..
Kauhka-sutra, 38, 41, 365.
Kauthuma school of the Sdmaveda,
18.
Kautilya, 43.
Kavacha, 357, 389.
Kavikarnapura, 310, 376.
Kayarohana, 146.
Kedarnath, 260. ^
Kena U,, 54, 364.
Kereya Padmarasa, 353.
KeS, ll^Ti,\*
Ke^va, 324.
Ke^ava Dasa Misra, 373.
Ke^va Kashmiri, 305, 376.
Ke4ava Mi4ra, 371.
Khadira Grihya Sutra, 365.
Khajuraho, 227.
Khakis, an order of Dadupanthi ascetics,
343-
Khalsa, the warrior-community of the
Sikhs, 339, 340.
Khalsas, an order of Dadiipanthi
ascetics, 341.
Khandadeva, 285, 367.
Khanda-di-Pahul, the Sikh baptismal
service, 339.
424
INDEX
KhandakdSf second part of the Bnddhist
Vinaya, 69.
Khafi4anakhatt4akhddya^ 223, 225,
37 >.
Khotan, 104, 153.
Khuddakanikdya, fifth section of Sutta
Pitaka, 109, 392.
Khtiddakapdtha^ book of the Buddhist
Sutta Pitaka, 71, 392.
K%Iaka, ^^h Z^9'
King, the, in law, 40.
Kirana A., 193, 194, 195 n. i.
Kirandvalfy 223, 370.
Kirandvatl-pi'akdiay 370.
Kirpan, 339 n. i .
Klrtan Sohila, 341.
Kirtaniya, 312.
Kirtivarman, 226.
Kishoribhajas, 312.
Knowledge in the Upanishads, 55.
Ko4ikavif 258, 386.
Korea, 154.
Kotwa, 343.
Koyil P., 386.
JCramadipik&j 305, 376.
Kramasandarbha, 377.
Krim, 212.
Krishna, in Mahdbhdrata^ 49 ; a man,
49; or a vegetation spirit, 49; or
a snn-god, 49 ; his character, 89 ; in
Megasthenes, 49; at Mathura, 50; ~
in second stage of Epic a partial
incarnation of Vishnu, 78, 83; in
early inscriptions, 84 n. 3 ; in third
stage of Epic, a full incarnation, 87,
100 ; the cult of Krishna in the Gltd,
88 f. ; the god transformed in the
GUd^ 89 ; in didactic Epic, 97 ; in
the dextrine of VyOha, 99 ; the
Kj-ishna-legend, 100; the child-
Kfishna, 100 ; K. and the cowherds,
100: ace. to Nimbarka Krishna is
the eternal God, 240.
Krishna III, a Rashtrakuta king, 282.
Krishna Chaitanya, 307.
Krishna Das, a Madhva, 375.
Krishna Das, a Vallabha, 377.
Krishnadasa Kaviraj, 310, 377.
Krishnadeva, 312.
Krishna-janma-Khan^cii 376.
Krishnakarndmrita, 304, 308, 375.
Krishna Lildbhyudaya^ 303.
Krishnami&ra, 227, 371, 373.
Krishnananda Vagina, 389.
Krishnapremdmrita^ yi*l,
Krishnapur, 49.
Krishndrchanadtpikd ^ 377,
KrUhtta U,y 36^.
Kriya, one of the two aspects of
SaktiofVishnn, 184.
Kriya-i^a, one.division of the ooat
of Samhi^ Agamas. Tantnu^ il
Kfiydsdra, 350, 353, 385.
Knim, 212.
Kshana, a member of the Sautiin
series, safhtdna, 106.
Kshapoitasdraf 282, 405.
Kshatriyas, 21, 36; edacatioQ of^
in transmigration, 34; dntieB,
relation to philosophy of the Up
shads, 53.
Kshemarija, 194, 259, 265, 386.
Kshemendra, 395.
Kshadrakagama, Sansk. for KlftK
kanikaya, 109.
Kshurtkd U,, 95, 364.
Kubera, the god of wealth, 41, 47.
Kubjikd T., 205 n. 3.
Kubjikdmata 7'., 199, an, 388.
Kublai Khan, 277.
Kuchar, 104, 153.
Kulachu4dman% 7'., 265, 387, 388.
Kuldrnava T., 268, 388.
Kulasdra T,, 265.
Kulakkhar, 188.
KuUsvar% 7:, 268.
Kuiljama Sctheb, 292.
Kulottunga, a Chola king, 245.
Kumaragnmparasvami, 351, 383.
Kumaralabdha, a SantrSntUca scfao
107.
Kumarapala, 280.
Kumdrapdlaprabandhay 402.
Kumara Valmiki, 303.
Kumarila, of the Karma Mimin
168 f., 216, 221, a86, 367; ca
Bhatta, 168 ; system, 168 HL
Kumbha Kana, 306.
Knmbh Mela, a gathering of ascc
held once in twelve years at
confluence of the Jumna and
Ganges, 174, 304, 327.
Kumudachandra, 279.
Kun4aliyd, 382.
Kundaknn^acharya, 166, 319, 381, :
403-
Kundalini, the coiled one, name of
goddess coiled up in MaladhSra, 1
294 n. I.
Kun4ikd U.f 364.
Kuhkuma, 357.
KupakshakauHkddifya^ 360, 403.
Kural, 121.
Kilrtna P,, 139, 37a, 383, 384; &u
INDEX
4^5
1 79 ; contains Lakuli^ material, 1 79 ;
contains Sakta material, 195, 196;
Tel. Tr., 346 ; Tarn. Tr., 347.
Kunikshetra, 9.
Kurus, 9.
Kushans, 78 ; the Kushan empire, 7S.
Ku^ika, 146.
KusumdtijaUj 221, 222, 224, 370.
Kutastha Purusha, 185.
Kutsa, 9n.
Labdhisdra, 282, 405.
Laghukshetrasamdsa, 402.
Lagku-sdhkhya'Sutra-vritti, 369.
Laghu Tikd, 351, 386. '
Lake-worship, 48.
Lakshandvahy 224, 370.
Lakshmana Deiika, 267, 389.
Lakshmana Sena, 238 n.
Lakshml, the consort of Vishnu, 47,
301 ; also the ^akii of Vasudeva, the
first vyuha, 184.
Lakshmldhara, 265, 266, 268, 358, 389.
Lakshmt S,y 183 n. i.
Lakshmlia Devapnra, 304.
LakshmJ-ydmala T., 265.
Lakula, the rod, or club, carried by
Lakuli, 146.
Lakuli, the club-bearer, probably the
name of an ascetic, I46f.
Lakuliki, i.e. the club-bearing god,
a name of Siva, 103, 146; images
of Lakuli^, 146, 192.
LakulT^-Pa^upatas. a sub-section of
the PaSupata Saivas, also called
LakuliSas, q.y.
Lakuli^as, a Pasupata ISaiva sect, also
called Laknliki-PaSupatas, 103, 146,
190, 191, 251, 383; name does not
occur in Epic, 103; but in Vdyu /*.,
146; for the name, see LakuliSa;
arose in Gujarat, 191 ; produced a
theology at an early date, 191 ; did
not accept the Agamas, 191 ; spread
to Rajputana, and south to the
Mysore, 192 ; literature, 146, 192,
252, 383; Lakuli^a images, 146, 192.
Lai Das, 334, 342 ; his BdnJ, 342.
Lai Dasis, 334, 342, 382 ; the cult, 342.
Lai Ded, 352, 386.
Lalita, 3^7.
Lalita A., 193.
Lalitamddhava, 376.
Lalitdsahasrandmay in Brahmdtu^a P,j
357, 3.S8, 389.
Lalitdtriiatiy in Brahmdn4a /*., 357,
389.
Lalita Vistara, a life of the Buddha,
originally Sarvastivadin, 107, 156,
i57» 275, 396; teaching, 157.
Lalitopdkhydnat in Brahmdfufa P.^ 357,
389.
Lahkdvatdra-sutrafKViyfilxiKVtL^XTi text,
161, 275, 396.
Lata coimtry, 146.
Ldtydyana Srauta Sutra, 365.
Laugakshi Bh&skara, 289, 367, 370,
371.
Lauriya Krishna Das, 303.
Lau Sen, 271.
Law, schools of, 80 ; method of schools,
80 ; law in the didactic Epic, 95 f.
Laymen, rise of cultured, 79.
Lila, sport, 115, 333.
Lild Charity 349, 380.
Llld Sathvdd, 249, 380.
LilaSnka, 375.
Llldvaiiy 282.
Linga, the phallus of Siva, 102 ; among
Vira Saivas, 261.
Lihga-dhdrand-chandrikdy 387.
LihgaP.y 139, 371, 383, 384; aSaiva
work, 179; contains LakulUa mate-
rial, 179; contains Sakta material,
195 ; contains a passage on Oihy 196 ;
Tam. Tr., 347.
Lifigayats, 191, 359, 353; n^eanmg ot
the term, 361 : see Vira Saivas.
Lochana Das, 377.
Logic, 135, 177: j^^ Nyaya; Buddhist
logic, 178,325; Jain logic, 178, -213,
225.
Lokaprakdiuy 403.
Lokaraksha, 118.
Lokayata philosophy, 44, 61 ; also
called Charvaka, 390 ; an early
manual now lost, 80.
Lokayatikas, 371.
Lokottara, transcendental, 109.
Lokottaravadins, branch of the Maha-
sanghika Buddhist school, 109, 394;
system, 109 ; Vinaya, 109, 394 ;
Mahavastu^ a Buddha - biography,
109 ; person of the Buddha, 109.
Lonkas, 359.
Lord of Vraja, epithet of Krishna, 100.
Lotus y the, i.e. the Saddharma Putufa-
rikay q.v.
Lumpakas, 359.
Madhava, 221 n. i, 335, 338, 251, 354,
255, 285, 386, 387, 389, 390, 394,
319 n. I, 349, 35o> 367,!3<>8, 309,
370, 37 ii 375i 380, 384, 385, 386.
4«6
INDEX
Madho Rao Peshwa, 322.
Madhurakavi, 188.
Madhusudana SarasvatI, 386| 290, 295,
368, 373.
Madhva, founder of the Madhva sect,
336 ; a Tirtha sannyasl, 304 ; believed
himself to be an incarnation of Vayu,
237; a dualist, 236; author of the
Sutra-bhdshyay 222, 250, 287, 374;
author of dvaita commentaries on ten
Upanishads, 223, 364, 365, 374.
Madhva Das, 303.
Madhva sect, 183, 235, 298, 302 ; teach-
ing reflected in the Samhitas, 183;
does not recognize Radha, 236; litera-
ture, 175 n.4, 236, 237 n.i, 374,
251 n. I, 302; holds the Samuch-
chhaya doctrine, 221 ; sannyasis, 304;
Sampradaya, 327; their influence,
307, 318-
Madhva-vijayay 237 n. i, 374.
Madhyamagama, Sansk. for Majjhima-
nikaya, 109; in Chinese, 155.
Madhyamaka, name of the philosophy
of vacuity of Nagarjuna, ii6f., 136;
influence, 158; literature of the
school, 208, 396.
Madhyamakdiamkdray 397.
Mddhyamaka-kdrikdSj 116.
Mddhyaviakdvatdra^ 208, 397.
Madura, 347.
Maga, i. e. Magus, Magian, a Persian
priest, 152, 153; priests of the Saura
sect, 205 ; recognized as Brahmans in
India, 152, 205.
Magadha, early religion and ethics of,
43 ; the kingdom, (i^.
Magadhi, the vernacular of Magadha,
68, 76 ; Magadhi Canon, the original
Buddhist Canon, now lost, 68.
Maghar, 332.
Magian, see Maga.
Magic, I, 16, 21, 22, 23, 32,41 ; Hindu
books on, 38, 41, 365; magic rites,
41, 43; Buddhist magic books, 71 ;
in daktism, 204.
Mahdbasava P., 353, 386.
Mahdbhdrata^ 44, 366, 373, 382 ; date,
45, 46 ; first stage of, 45, 46 ; its re-
ligion, 48 f,, 366; second stage, 78,
83 ; religion of second stage, 83 ; a
polemic against Buddhism, 84 ; third
stage, 85 ; 6akta material, 387 ; Saura
material, 152, 389 ; law in the Epic,
366; philosophy, 366; vernacular
versions, 228, 296, 301, 303, 366.
Mahdbhdrata - tdtparya - nirnaya^ by
Madhva, 236, 374; mentioiis &
kara's demon origin, 287 n. i.
Mahdbhdshya, 49. •
Mahadeva Vedantin, 369.
Maha-Ganapati, 270.
Mahdkdla 71, 397.
Mahakalaj'ttdna-vinirnayay 199, 387
Mahakarun^utuftwikaj 207.
MahdlamkdraucUthUy 394.
Mahamaudgalyavana, 394.
Mahdtnayur% Dhdratfiy 213, 399.
MahdmeghO'Siitraf ai2.
Mahanama, 392.
Mahanarayana U,, 49, 58, 364, 373
Mahanirvdna 7*., I99n. i, 354, 356.
MahdniiUha, 400.
Mahanubhavas, 247 ; see Manbluuis.
Mahdpaddna Sutta, 70 n.
Mahdparinibbdna Suita, 70 n.
Mahdprdlay^ 382.
Mah^ratydkhydna^ 400.
Mahdpurushcicharitra, 402.
Mahar, name of a large Ontcaste n
found in the Marafha country, 3
n. I.
Mahdrdjakanika^lekha, 395.
Maharash(ri, 162.
Mahd S,y 236 n. i.
Mahasanghikas, a Hina^^ma Boddh
school, 109, 393; sjTstem, 10
Canon, 109 ; Ekottardgamay ic
393 ; in Chinese, 156 ; the Vina
also in Chinese, 156, 393.
Mahdsanntpdta'Sutra, 159, 396.
Mahasepho nagno, 163.
Mahdstddhasdra 7"., 356, 387, 389.
Mahat, t. t. of Sankhya system, 13a
Mahd U,, 145, 358, 364, 379.
Mahdva^af a section of the Boddh
Vinaya, 69, 70 n., 71.
Mahdvairochanabhisatnbodhi^ 3ii|3<
Mahdvdkya U.^ 364.
Mahdvathsa, 155, 393.
Mahdvastu, 109, 115, 394.
Mahavihara of Annradhapurai Ceyk
i54» 155-
Mahavira, founder of Jainism, 7
date, 73, 163; his system, 74; 1
date, 73 ; his utterances expreued
the twelfth Afiga, 75 ; in the Svetai
bara Canon, 74, 76.
Mahdviracharita, 278, 280, 401, 402
Mahayana, a form of Baddiiism, 3
no, III; its essential chaiact*
III ; date, in ; the eating of fle
forbidden, 113; its theory of t
three bodies of the Bnddhas, 273,
FNDEX
427
Mahayaiia literature, 112^ 114, 116,
117, 118, 157 ff., 207 fF., 396 ; Maha-
yana worship, 113 ; Mahay ana philo-
sophy, 114; two forms of the Maha-
yana, 1 1 2 flf. ; Mahayana texts in
Sanskrit, 275.
Mahay dnaSraddhotpddaidstra^ 116, 161,
396. 398.
Mahayana- sutrdlamkdr a ^ i6r, 397.
Mahesa, 261 n. 3.
MaheSvara, a title of Siva, 145.
Mahe^varas, a title used by certain
groups of Saivas, 191.
Mahidhara, 357, 384, 389.
Mahirhnastavay 383.
MahTpati, 296, 301, 374.
Mahi^asaka school of Hinayana Budd-
hism, 156, 394; Vinaya in Chinese,
i56» 394-
Mahisha, a demon-buffalo, 149.
Maina, a kingdom in Bengal, 271.
MaithilT literature, 306, 378.
Maitrdyaita U,, 79, 364 ; date, 92; 94,
95 ; reflected in didactic Epic, 92 ;
significance of the U., i, 93 ; contains
the earliest mention of the Trimurti,
148.
MaitrdyanX Samhitdy 27, 28.
Maitrayaniyas, a school of the Black
Yajus, 27.
Maitreya, a disciple of Lakuli, 146; a
Manushi- Buddha, 273.
Maitreya U., 364.
Majjhima Nikaya, second division of the
Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 70, 71, 391,
393. _
Makuta A,, 193.
Mdlad-Mddhava^ name of an eighth-
century drama, 192, 200, 202, 203,
388.
Malayagiri, 278, 402.
Malayalim literature, 251, 296, 297,
357, 379, 384.
Mdhnl-vijaya T., 265.
Mallanarya, 386.
Mallavadin, 214, 401.
Mallindtha /*., 405.
Maluk Das, 328, 381.
Maluk Dasis, 328.
Manas, t. t. of Sankhya system, 98,
130 ; also in Vaiseshika, 133 ; also in
Nyaya, 135.
Manasa, 356.
Manatunga, 205, 214, 401.
Manavachakam Kadandan, 257, 258,
386.
Mdfiava Dhartna§dstra^ 81, 366.
Mdnava Grihya Sutra ^ 365.
Mdnavn ^ratita Sutra^ 365.
M ana vala-mahamuni, 319.
Manavans, a sutra-school of the Black
Yaj'uSf 81.
Manbhau Panth, 248.
Manbhaus, i.e. Mahanubhavas, a Vai-
shnava sect, 190, 2^7, 322 ; points in
common with Vira Saivas, 247 ;
social organization, 247, 263; or-
ganized in the thirteenth century, 247 ;
very heterodox, 247 ; hated, con-
demned and persecuted by Maratha
bhaktas and by Smartas, 322 ;
charged with gross crimes, 322 ; re-
cognize Krishna alone, 247 ; use a
symbol, not an image, 247 ; vege-
tarians, 247 ; their dress and orna-
ments, 322; they have five founders
or propagators, 249 ; their five
mantras, 249 ; Sampradaya, 248, 327 ;
their chief scripture is the Bhagavad-
gUdy 249; their own literature, 249,
322, 380 ; their secret alphabet, 249 ;
their monks and nuns, 249; their
chief monastery, 322.
Mandala, a circle; used of a diagram
held to possess occult power, 202,
355-
Maftdalabrdhmana U,^ 364.
Mandanami^ra, 169, 367*
Mdndukya Kdrikd, 1 70, 368 ; the
earliest surviving exposition of the
advaita Vedanta, 171.
Mdndukya U,, 79, 170, 364, 368 ; date,
92.
Manichaeism, 153.
Manikka Vachakar, 193, 197, 220, 385 ;
date, 197 ; poems, 197, 256, 385.
Manikyanandin, 217, 219, 404.
ManimanjarJy a Madhva work, 175
n."4, 237n. 1,375.
Manimat, 237.
Manimekhalaif 121.
Maniprabhdt 289, 369.
ManjuSri, 158, 272.
Manjuirl-mula T., 272, 398.
Matijuifl-ndma'SangUiy 272, 399.
Manorathapurant, 393.
Man Singh, 340.
Mantra, religious thought or prayer, 25 ;
supernatural text, 25; adoration
mantra, a phrase expressing adoration
to the god of the sect, 167, 186;
doctrine of mantras in Agamas, 195 ;
in Tantras, 201, 202 ; the whole body
of ^akta mantras identical with the
428
INDEX
^akti, 20 1 ; among Vira ^aivas,
261.
Mantrakoitif 388.
MantramaJiodadhij 357, 389.
Mantraraja of Narasimha, 188, 189.
Mantrikd U,, 364.
Manu, code of, 81 ; seeMdnava Dkar-
niaidstra,
Manushi-Bnddha, 273, 274; each has
a world, 274.
Manyakheta, 216.
Marai-jfiana-sambandha, 357, 386.
Marasimha II, 282,
Mara(ha bhaktas, 234, 298, 374; rise
of the movement, 234 ; tney use the
vemacnlar, 234 ; their mantra, 235 ;
their hatred of the Manbhaus, 322.
Marathi, 162 ; Marathi literature, 234,
296, 297. 298 ff., 3*74, 381, 384, 390.
Mardana, 336.
Maritontadarya, 387.
Mdrkandeya P., 139, 371, 387; con-
tains the Chan4l'fndhdtmyay 140,
150, 356 ; contains other ^akta docu-
ments, 357 ; contains Brahma ma-
terial, 140, 148, 388 ; contains Sanra
material, 140, 152, 390; Tel. Trs.,
367, 357 ; ^eng. Trs., 356.
Marriage, 2, 40; age of marriage of
girls, 40.
Marriage ceremonies, 16.
Manila, one of the Ave original Linga-
yat ascetics, 260.
Maruts, ip.
Mahka Srauta Sutra, 365.
Matahga Updgama, 194.
Materialism, 44, 60.
Matha, the Hindu word for a monastery,
298.
Mathura, 49, 50, 100, icon. 6, 310.
Mathurd-mdhatmya, 310, 376.
Mathuranatha, 371.
Mathurdndthl, 371.
Matricheta, a Buddhist writer, no,
395-
Matsya P., 139, 372; Tel. Tr., 346,
383.
Maurya empire, 36, 78, 83, 84.
Maya, (i) magic power, 115; (2) illu-
sion, 59, 172, 282 ; (3) t. t. in Aga-
mic Saivism, an element of Pa^a,
195..
Maya Sakti, 185.
Mayavadin, holding the doctrine of
Mdyd^ illusion, 274, 293.
Mdydvaibhava S.y 263 n. i.
Mayura, 205, 390.
Mayiira Bhatta, 273.
Meditation, 28.
Megasthenes, 49.
Meghadutaf 217, 360.
Meghasutra, 396.
Melkote, i.e. Yadavagiri in the Mysore,
182, 245, 346, 348.
MenanderaMilinda, 105.
Mercury system, 354.
Merutunga (A), 381.
Merutunga (B), 360, 371, 402.
Meykanda Deva, 257, 258, 385.
Middle padi, in 'Buddhism, 63.
Mihira, Sansk. form of Persian Mithn,
153.
Milinda «= Menander, 104.
Miiinda-paHka, 104, 393.
Mimamsa, i.e. exegesis, 124; used
specially 6f the Karma Billmaliin,
125.
Mimamsaka, one learned in the Kama
Mimamsa, 39.
MTmamsd'ttydya'prakd^a, 285, 367.
Mlmdmsd-floka-vdrttika^ 367,
Mlmdmsd'Sutra-hhashya ,135.
Minas, a sect of Sikhs, 340 ; they have
a Granth and a Janamsdkki of their
own, 340 n. 4.
Mira Bai, 306, 379.
Misery, in Buddhism, 63.
MiSra, i. e. mixed, Tantras, 268.
Mithra, Avestan form of Mitxa, the
Persian sun-god, 153.
Mitra, 3, 3 n., 10 ; a disciple of LaknK,
146; a Calcutta scholar, 375.
Mitrachatushkakathdy 403.
Mokshadharma, a section of the didactic
Epic, filled with Vaishnavism, 96^ 97.
Mokshamdrgapatdi, 405.
Monappa, 387.
Mongolia, 377; Mongolian Buddhist
Canon, 377, 391.
Monism, in Upanishads, 56; in G^d,
90 ; in didactic Epic, 97 ; in Sanatsu-
jdtlya, 97.
Monk = sannySsi, 39, 1 29 ; see also
Buddhist Monks, Jain Monks.
Mountain worship, 41, 43.
Mrigendra A,, 94, 384.
Mudgala P., 370, 371, 364, 390.
Mudra, a seal, a sjanbol,' 348 n. 3;
ritual gesture made with the fingers,
202 ; 1. 1. of Gorakhnathi yoga, 354.
Muhammad Shah, 345.
Mnhammadan conquest of North India,
220, 277; Muhammadan influence,
284, 299.
INDEX
4*9
Mukhabimba A., 193.
Mukhayugbimba A, , 1 93.
Muktabai, 374.
Muktanand, 378.
Muktdphala, 234, 374.
Muktikd U.t 287, 364.
Mukundaraj, 296, 300, 373, 384.
Mukundarama, 356, 390.
Alftldchdra^ 166, 319, 403.
Muladhara, one of the occult circles in
the body, ace. to Sakta yoga, 201,
268.
Mulagranthas of Jain Canon, 400.
Mulamadhyamaka-kdrikd, 397.
Miilaprakriti, 185, 201.
Mulasarvastivadin sect of Hinayana
Buddhism, 207 ; its Vinaya, 207,
395-
Mulasthamba^ 384.
Mulasutras of Jain Canon, 400.
Multan, i.e. Mulasthana, root-station,
of Saura worship, 152.
Mulubazil, 298.
Alundaka U., 58, 364.
Muni Marg, 248.
Mnnisundara, 402.
Munja, 279.
MuHJaprabandhay 281, 402.
Muralidasa, 374.
Murari Gupta, 376.
Muruha, 148.
Music, 1 8 ; magic power of the tunes of
the Sdmaveda, 21.
Muslim, see Muhammadan.
Nabhajl, 317.
Nada, 201.
Nddabindu U.^ 95, 364.
Nadi, 201, 213 ; cf. 186, 195, 210.
Nadiru n-nikat^ 344.
Naga, a naked sannyasi, 174.
Nagadeva Bhatta, 248.
Nagarjuna, 95, 116, 397 ; chief authority
of the Mahayana, 116, 117, 275 ; his
kdrikd^ 116, 208, 397.
Nagarkirtana, 307.
Nagas, a military order of DadupanthT
ascetics, 342.
Nagasena, 105.
Nagesa Bhatta, 369.
A^aishkarmya-siddhi^ 367.
Nakkira Deva, 147, 383.
Nala, 48.
Ndla^iydr, 218, 404.
Nalanda, a Bhuddhist University, 306,
208.
Ndldyira PrabandhafHy hymns of the
Ajvars edited as the Sri-Vaishnava
hymn-book, 241, 246, 379 ; the
hymns used in the temples and
studied in the schools, 241, 320,
321.
Nama, 186.
Nambi-andar-nambi, 241 n. 2, 256,
385- ** ^
Nambutiri Brahmans, 268.
Namdeva, 298 f.; date, 299, 301, 323,
374> 381.
Nammalvar, 188, 241, 246, 379.
Nanak, 334, 336, 382 ; lives, 336 ;
hymns and other poems, 336; the
J(^pjh 336 ; theology, 337 ; Hinduism
and Islam both acknowledged, 337 ;
advaita influence, 337; the whole
Hindu pantheon retained, 337.
Nanakpanthls, 340.
^i^anasambandhar, 196, 385.
Nandapandita, 142.
Nandi, 48.
NandikeSvara, 387.
Nandisutra^ 163, 400.
Nandi§vara, 395.
Naiijanacharya, 387.
Narada, a Vaishnava rishi, 99, 152.
Ndraday ox Ndradlya P,^ 139, 179, 190,
37i» 380.
Ndrada-bhakti'Shtra, 233, 269, 374.
Ndrada Pa^chardtra., 289 n. 2, 316,
Ndradaparivrdjaka 6^., 364.
Ndradasmritiy 180, 366.
Narahari, 329.
Narahari Sarkar, 308, 376.
Naraina, 341^
Narasimha A,^ 193.
Narasimha S., 249, 380.
Narasimha sect, 249, 380.
Narasimha Upapurdna, see Nrisiihha
Upapurdna^ 372, 380.
Narayana, a divine name, 50 ; used of
Vishnu, 99, 145; the Narayana
mantra, 186, 188.
Narayana, a Madhva pandit, 237 n. i,
375-
Narayana, a Marafha bhakta, 300.
Narayana, a Mimamsist, 367.
Narayana, an Upanishad commentator,
234> 287, 364, 365.
Ndrdyana ^.,23611. i.
Narayana Sarasvati, 369 n. i*
Narayanatirtha, 373.
Ndrdyana U,, 188, 364, 379,
Narayana- Vishnu, the God of the Sri-
Vaishnava sect, 248.
43°
INDEX
Ndrdyanlya^ a Vaishnava section of
the didactic Epic, 97, 98, 99, T84.
Narnol, 343.
Narsiiigh Mehta, 306, 379.
Nasik, 216.
Nathamuni, 24 1, 256, 379. •
Nathas, a groap or sect of PaSupata
Saivas, 190, 192, 348.
Navanlta-Ganapati, 270.
Navatattva, 402.
Nayanar, religious leader, i^6*
Nemichandra Siddhanta- chakravarti,
281, 282, 404.
Nemidatta, 361, 405.
Nemijina Z'., 405.
Neikhu vidu-tiitUj by Umapati 6iva-'
chary a, 258, 386.
Nepalese Buddhism, 103, 274, 275 ; its
nine Buddhist books, 275.
Nepalese Buddhist Literature ^ 275.
^^i^h 393-
New Moon sacrifice, 22.
Niddnakathd^ 7on., 154, 392, 393.
Niddesa^ 392.
Nihangs, 34p n. 9.
Nija-guna-Siva-yogi, 387.
Nilakantha = Snkantha.
Nilakaniha, author of the Kriydsdra^
35o» 353, 385.
Nllarudra U., 103, 364.
Nimbarka, 238, 239; his original name
said to have been Bhaskara, 239n. 6 ;
his philosophy bhedabheda, 239 ;
his theology, 240 j his literature,
376.
Nimbarkas, a Vaishnava sect, founded
by Nimbarka, 237, 239, 305; Sam-
pradaya, 327 ; literature, 240, 270,
305* 376 ; their Trimurti, 149 ; their
influence, 307, 308, 318; the sect
weakened by Vallabhacharya and
Chaitanya competition, 304, 305 ;
their two pontiffs, 305 ; their sankir-
tan, 305.
Nine Dharmas, The, of Nepal, 275.
Nirdkdra Mlmdmsd, 336, 382.
Nirdlamba U,^ 364.
Nirafljana P., 384.
Niraydvatl, 400.
Nirmalas, 340.
Nirmanakaya, one of the bodies of a
Buddha, 159.
Nirukta, 42.
Nirvana, original meaning of word, 63,
113; final nirvana, 63, 65, 274;
altered meaning, 112.
Nifvdna U.y 364.
Ni^ktis, 76, 400.
Nischal Das, a DidOpanth! and td-
vaitin, 341, 382.
Nishkalankavatara, 292.
Niiltha, 400.
NiSvdsa A., 193.
Nthdsatattva S,, 300, 388.
NXtivakydnifita^ 404,
NityahnikatUaka T., 265.
Niiyananda, 307, 308, 309, 311.
Nityananda Das, 377.
Niyamasdra, 2191 403.
Niyata, 185.
Noble Path, the, in Buddhism, 63.
Nodhas, 9n.
Nriga, 176.
Nrisimhanandanatha, 358.
NrisithkafUrvatdpaiaya l/., i88| 189^
206, 3^, 364, 380.
Nrisithha S. or Narasifkha S,, 38a
Nrisiihha Upapurdna^ 189, 220, 249^
'380.
Nrisithhottaratdpanlya U,^ 189, 266,
■364, 380.
Nuddea, 289, 306.
Nuns, see Buddhist Nuns, Hindu Nim^
Jain Nuns.
Nyasa, ritual movements made with
the hands, 202.
Nydya-bhashya, 370,
Nydya-chintdmani, 224, 370 n. 2.
Nydya-kandallf 224, 370.
Nydyakanikd of Vachaspatimiins i^
367-
Nydya'kusumdHjali, 224.
Nydydlamkdra, 370.
Nydya-lUdvcUi^ 370.
Nydydlokasiddhi^ 398.
NydyamdldTdstara, 221 n. i, 294.
Nydya-tnatijarfj 370.
Nydydmrita, 375.
Nydya-nibandha-prakdia^ 37a
Nydydnusdra-idstraf 156, 395.
NydyarcUndkara^ 367.
Nydyaratnamdldf 367.
Nydya-sdra, 370.
Nydyasiddhofijanai 380.
NydyasiUhinibandha^ 176, 370.
Nydya-stidhdj of SoiAe&vara, 367.
Nvdya-sudhd of Ja3ratirtha, 375.
Ny^a-sHtra, 370-
Nydya sUtra-bhdshya^ I23n. 2, 135,
370-
Nydya-sutra vrittiy 371.
Nyaya system, 95, 13^; an ctrfy
manual now lost, 80; chief docomC
the Nydyasatra, 134; leiatioo to
INDEX
43
Vai^eshika, 134; system, 134 ; theis-
tic, 134; meant for householders,
135; connected, from about 600 A. D.,
with the Pa6upata sect, 1 78 ; other
manuals, 178, 224 ; does it owe vydpti
to Greece?, 178; the Nyaya com-
bined with the Vai^shika, 2 24, 289 ;
influence of its theism, 273.
Nyaya-tattva^ 379.
JVydya-vdrtika, 178, 370.
Nydya - vdrtika - tdtparya • pariiuddhij
224, 370.
Nydya-vdrtika-tdtparya-tlkd^ 178, 370.
Nydydvatdra^ 165, 400.
Nydyavritti, 370.
Oblations, 3, 14.
Old Western Hindi, 317.
Olivil Odukkam, 351, 386.
Om, 93, 103, 132, 201.
Orissa, 205, 274, 391.
Oriya literature, 296.
Orthodox Twice-born, 36, 292 ; see
Smartas; their literature, 36 ff., 79flf.,
1 40 if., 179, 226, 293.
Outcaste Lihgayats, 263.
Outcastes, 16, 34, 40; permitted to
become Yogis, 61 ; Outcaste names
among the ^ri-Vaishnava saints, 247.
Padakalpataru, 377.
Padartha, t. t. of VaiSeshika system,
134-
Paddrtha-mdld, 371.
Padmadhatu, 159.
Padmanabha, 281.
Padmandbhakavyay 402.
Padmanabhatirtha, 375.
Padmanahka, 353, 387.
Padma /*., 139, 371, 388; a Brahma
Purana, 140, 148, 388 ; the Pushkara
Mdhdtmya in first Khanda, 148;
. passage copied in Mahdbhdrata^ 1 36 ;
contains Vaishnava sections, 226;
the Uttara Khanda probably a Sri-
Vaishnava document, 320.
Padma A (Jain), 217, 219, 404.
Padmapada, 368.
Padmardja A, 353, 387.
Padma S., i83n. i, 184.
Padmasambhava, 213.
Padmdvally 376.
Padmottara, 158.
Padod^ka, 261.
Padyamulu^ 382.
Pahlavas, Parthian s, 83.
Paihgala U.^ 364.
Paippaldda^ 24.
Pdiyalachchhtf 401.
Palakurki, 264.
Pali, the literary language of Ceylonese
Buddhism, 68 ; Pali Canon, the Cey-
lonese Buddhist Canon, 68, 391 ; re-
duced to writing, 104; relation of
Pali Canon to earlier texts, 68 ;
extra-canonical texts in Pali, 154.
Pali literature, 275.
Pambatti, 352.
Pampa, 282, 283, 404.
Pampa-Bhdratay 283, 283, 404.
Pampa-Rdrndyana, a Jain work in
Kanarese, 250, 283, 405.
Pahchahrahma U.^ 364.
PanchadaiJf 286, 290 n. 3, 295, 296,
368.
PaHchakalpa, 400.
Pa'hchakrama^ 212, 398.
Panchakf ishna, the five founders of the
Manbhaus, 249.
Panchaladeva, 282.
Panchapddikd, 368.
Pancharakshdj 399.
Pancharatra, name of a Vaishnava theo-
logical system, 98 ; Paficha^ikha said
to be its author, 94, 99 ; meaning of
word uncertain, 98 ; a Pancharatra
scripture, 98 ; Pancharatra Vaish-
navas, 142; Pancharatra literature,
182, 240, 319, 379.
Pdtkhardtrarakshdi 380.
Pancharatra Samhitas, Vaishnava manu-
als of belief and practice, 98, 142,
179, 182 ff., 379; date, 182; were
probably late in penetrating the
South, 183, 187; _ parallel to the
Tantras and the Agamas, 182 fif. ;
contain a ^akta element, 183; num-
ber, 182 ; lists, 182 f. ; history, 183 ;
sectarian character, 183 ; contents
fall into four categories, 184; have
suffered from interpolation, 183;
were long kept secret, 184; system,
184 ff.; relation of the soul to God,
185 ; Sakta Yoga, 186 ; doctrines of
Mantra and Yantra, 186 ; worship
and sacrifice, 186; unorthodox, 186;
open to the four castes, 186; Ra-
manuja sought to substitute Pafi-
charatra for Vaikhanasa Samhitas in
the temples, 182, 244, 320 ; used to-
day in most Vaishnava temples in
the South, 181, 320; some are of
Madhva origin, 183.
PaHcha^atlprabodhasambandha, 403,
432
INDEX
Pancha^ikha, a teaclter of theistic Yoga,
04, 99 ; probably author of a manual
in sutras, 94 ; said to be the author
of the PaAcharatra system, 94, 99.
PaHchnstikdyat 403.
Patkhatihiyasafhgahasutta, 219, 381,
403.
PafichaviffUa Rrdhmana^ 27, 28, 303.
PaRchayatana pQja, five-shrines worship
of the Smartas, 1 79, ao6, 293.
Pandarams, 349.
Pan4<n}a /*., 361, 405.
Pandharpur, a town in the Mara^ha
country, 301, 302; Manbhaus for-
bidden to enter it, 322.
Panditaradhya, 260, 387; see Sripati
Panditaradhya.
Pandus, 83.
Panini, 42, 290 n. 2.
Pahjgranthl, 341, 382.
Panna, 292.
Panth, path, sect, 335.
Pantheism, in Upanishads, 56 ; in
VedHnta-siitras, 127, 128; in Gauda-
pada, 170; in Sajiikara, 172; in
Buddhism, 273, 274.
PapatU/iasiidatay 393.
Para A,., 193.
Parabrahma U., 364.
Paradise Mahayana, 117, 158; litera-
ture, 117, 158.
Parama S., 236 n. i.
Paraniahamsa U., 95, 364.
Paramahamsaparivrdjaka 17., 364.
Paramanu, t« t. of Vai^hika system,
133.
Paramdrthandma-sahgitiy 272, 399.
Paramdrthasaptati of Vasubandhu, 161,
398.
Paranidrthasdraj 259, 386.
Paramarthasatya, ^ real truth ' in the
Madhyamaka system, 116.
Paramatmaprakdia, 282, 405.
Paramehara A., 193, 194 n. i, 264.
Paratnehara T,, 199, 388.
ParaRjoti, 347, 383.
Parasara, 9n.
Pdraskara Gfihya Sutra^ 365.
Parahirdma'Bhdrgava-sutray 266, 359,
388.
Paribhashas, 39.
Par^kshdmukha, 219, 404.
PartHshtaparvan, 280, 402.
Partvdra, last section of Buddhist
Vinaya, 69, 391.
Parivrajaka, 52.
Parjanya, 10, 21.
Parnaiavarlndma'dhdraMjf 399.
Parsees, 168.
IHLrfrva, or ParSvanatha, q.v.
Pdrhdbhyudaya, 217, 404.
Parivanatha, a Jain leader before Maha-
vTra, 73, 279.
Pdrhandihacharitra^ 400, 405.
Parthas^rathimi&ra, 220, 367.
Parthians, 78.
Paruchchhepa, 9n.
Parvata, name of one of the ten oidos
of ^ankara*s sannyasis, 1 74.
Pa^, fetter, a term in the Pa&npata iDd
Agamic theology, T02, 103, 195, 198.
PaSu, used of man in the Pa&npata tsd
Agamic theology, 102, 103, 195, 198,
351. -
Pa^upata, a new Saiva theology, fomd
in the didactic Epic, loi, 145, 251,
349 ; in Vdyu P., 145 ; numbers, 31 j
principle, 102; heterodox, ids; the
PaSupata ordinance is iJke uu tf
ashes, 103; Pa&upata Yoga, 145, 14O,
251 ; Pa^upata literature, 251, 384.
Pdiupatabrahma U,, 364.
Pa^upata &dvas, those who follow the
PaSupata theology ; name applied to
various Saiva sects, 190, 191, 351,
347. ^
Pdiupata'Sdstra, 251.
Pa^upati, lord of flocks, an epithet of
^iva, 102, 195.
PaSupati'Sutra^ 351.
Patanjali, a grammarian, 49.
Patanjali, author of Yoga-siitra^ I3>i
369- ,
Pati, lord, a title of Siva, 102, 103, 198,
351.
PdHmokkha, a confession, part of the
Buddhist Vinaya, 69.
Patirakiriyar, 387.
Patisambhiddmaggay 393.
PattkdtuZt 393.
Pattinattu Piljai, 255, 385, 387; Sittir
lyrics mistakenly attributed to binit
35 a» 385* 387.
Paiimackariya, 165, 400.
Paushkata iS., 183 n. i.
Pavitra, a low-caste sacred thread, 245*
Penance, 40.
Periya Purdnatn, 256, 385.
Periyar, 188.
Periyatiruvandddiy 379,
Persia, 104.
Persian literature, 297, 339, 544*
Persians, i.
INDEX
433
nism, in Upanishads, 57.
atthUi 392.
, 188.
ic worship, 5, 48.
QS of 6iva, praised in Epic, 102.
201, 212.
sophical schools, 60.
iophical systems, harmony of, 287,
I.
sophic hymns in Vedas, 16, 22,
jophy, 367 ; beginnings in India,
philosophic hymns, 22, 32 ;
losophic ideas in Brahmanas, 32,
49 ; earliest system, 37 ; of the
[yUpanishads, 54ff.; many schools
)th cent., 60 ; some atheistic, 60 ;
ers materialistic, 60.
tics, 42.
Lokacharya, 246, 380.
lagia-Pemmal-Jlya, 246, 380.
: U., 364.
'niryuktii 400.
333, 328, 381.
I, basket ; name for a division of
Buddhist Canon, 67.
-s, 43 ; schools of, 80 ; politics in
ictic Epic, 95.
ndry, 49.
leism oi RigvedUy 12.
., 283, 404.
worship, 41.
t>akrodaif\2sfi^ 386.
iar, 188.
ndhachintdmaniy 281, 402.
7idhako§a, 281, 402.
ndhas, 278.
achandra, 217, 219, 281, 402,
akara, of the Karma Mim^rhsa,
, 367 ; called Guru, 168 ; system,
ff.
asa-mahatmya of the Skanda P.,
*
dvakacharita, 281, 402.
ritasdra, 403.
u-liiiga-lild, i\*i, 353, 382, 387.
ihachandrodaya^ 221, 222, 227,
. 290, 310, 371, 373-
amna, a Vaishnava divinity, one
le vyilhas, 98, 185.
wnnacharitra^ 405.
•ati, 32.
ipand-sutra^ 215, 400.
-paramita, wisdom-perfection, i. e.
he Buddhas ; expressed in sutras,
397-
PrajUdparatnita - hridaya'Sutra, 1 59,
397. 399-
Prajfid-pradipa, 397.
Prajftaptipada-idstra, 394.
Prakarana-granthas, 295.
Prakaranapanchikd^ 367.
Prakdia, 316, 376.
Praka^ananda, 568.
Praklrnas of Jain Canon, 400.
Prakrit literature, 75, 120, i6a, 163 fF.,
213, 214, 215, 275, 377, 280, 281.
Prakriti, t. t. of the Sankhya system,
98* 130, 148.
Pramdnachihtdmanii 402.
Pramdnaparikshd, 404.
Prameyfi-kainala-mdrtan4oti 219, 404*
Prameyaratndrnava, 316, 377.
Prdndgnihotra U,f 364.
Pranalinga, 261.
Prdnatoshinl T'., 356, 389.
Pranava U., 364.
Pranayama, breath-restraint, 254.
Prannath, 291.
PrapaHchasdra T., 266, 388.
Prasad, grace ; grace-gift ; among Vira
^aivas, 261, 261 n. 3.
Prasannapdddf 208, 397.
Pra^astapada, author of Vaiseskika-
sutra-bhashya^ 177, 370; was a
Pasupata ^aiva, 191.
Praina U., 79 ; date, 92.
Prainavydkarana^ 400.
Prainottaramdldf 217, 404.
Pra§nottaropdsakdchdra^ 405.
Prasthdnabheda, 290 n. 6, 295, 373.
Prasthanatraya, the triple canon of the
Vedanta, 128, 173.
Prataparudra, of Warangal, 264; of
Orissa, 307.
Prathamanuyoga, first section of Di-
gambara Secondary Canon, 219.
Pratham Granth, 382.
Prdtimoksha-sutra of Mulasarvastiva-
dins, 395.
Pratyabhijna, 198.
Pratyabhijrid-kdrikds, 386.
PratyabhijHd-vimarHnif 386.
Pratydbhijnd'VivfitirvimarHra^ 386.
Praiyahgird Dhdranl, 212.
Pravachanaparikshdi 403.
Pravachanasdra, 219, 281, 403.
Pravartaka, a propagator, 249.
Predestination in Paiicharatra system,
185.
Premanand, 378.
Premavildsa^ 377.
Prem-ras-ras, 377.
Ff
434
INDEX
Previous Bnddhas, mythical Bnddhas
before Gautama, 70, 1 10, 273.
Priests, Vedic, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 16, 17 ff. ;
three orders of, 20 ; calleii Brahmans,
20; their supernatural power, 21;
many practise magic rites, 2 1 ;
supremacy of priests, in the Brah-
mana period, 31 ; called gods on
earth, 32.
Primal Sages, 1. 1. of Yoga system, 132.
Prithi Chand, 340.
Priya Das,_3i7.
ProdgUdA,^ 193.
Prosody, 42.
Pseudo-epic, 85 n. 4.
PiiggalapafiHatii, 393.
PujarT, a temple-ministrant, 292, 294;
in the main a northern word. See
Archaka.
Pujyapada, 216, 219, 404.
PulikeSin II, 217.
Pundarikaksha, 241.
Pundra, painting of the sect-mark, 186.
Punjabi literature, 336.
Puno Granth, 382.
Puramdar Das, 303, 375.
Puranas, 136 flf., 371; early references,
136; original character, 137; marks,
137 ; a Pnrana was a book of origins,
137; captured by the sects, 137 ff.;
age of existing Puranas, 136, 137,
138; earliest from Gupta period,
138; importance, 136; the eighteen,
138 f., 178; the lists, 139, 178;
probable list of ninth century, 225 ;
twenty Puranas are recognized, 139;
cause of the confusion in the lists,
225 ; contents, 139 ; inspiration of
the Puranas, 173; sectarian docu-
ments, 140, 179, 226; vernacular
versions, 296, 297^
Purl, name of a famous town in Orissa,
307-
Purl, name of one of the ten orders of
Sankara*s sannyasTs, 174, 304, 357*
Purusha, t. t. of Sahkhya system, spirit,
130.
Purushdrthasiddhyupdyay 281, 404.
Purusha SUkta^ 373.
Purusha vifeesha, 1. 1. of Yoga system, 132.
Punishottama, 376.
Purushottama *$*., 236 n. i .
Purva Mimamsa = Karma Mimamsa,
i24f., 125.
Purva-iramdmsasutras^ 125, 367.
Purvas, a lost section of the Jain canon,
120, 163.
Pushpachu4d, 400.
Pushpadanta, 121.
Ptishpikd, 400.
Putana, 100 n. 6.
Putra-varga monasteries, 262 n. i.
Questions of King Milinda, 104
Chinese, 155, 393'
Radha, favourite of K^hna, in '.
cycle of Kpshna-myth, 100;
not appear in Bhaffovctta P., n
Ndrada-bhakti'Siitra, nor in Sdnti
bhakii'Siitra, 233 ; not recognizi
Bhagavatas, Madhvas, or Ma
bhaktas, 229, 235, 236; but see
her origin, 237 ; date of her woi
238; accepted by Vishnnsvi
Nimbarkas, Chaitanyas, Valla'
and later sects, 237, 307; r^
as Krishna's eternal consort in '.
barkite and other sects, 240
Nepalese Buddhism, 275 n. 2 ;
where, 335, 345.
Radha-Krishna literary poetry, 3
378.
Rddhd-sudhornidhi^ 318, 378.
Radha- Vallabhis, 318; their theol
318 ; their literature, 378.
Kag, 1. 1. of Indian music, 338.
Raghavanka, 264, 387.
Raghunandana Bhattacharya, 295, ,
Raghunatha Bhatta, 309.
Raghunatha Das, 309.
Raghunatha Siromani, 280, 371.
Rahasya-traya-sara, 380.
Rahras, 341.
Rai Das, 306, 328, 332, 381; aCha
332.
Rai Dasis, 328.
Rajagfiha, story of Buddhist C01
held there, 65.
Rajalinga, 383.
Rdjamdrtamfat 223, 369.
Rajapra§ntya^ 400.
Rajaiaja, 241 n. 2, 256.
'Rajas, t. t. of Sinkhya system,
148.
Rajatekhara, 281, 402.
Rdjaiekhara-vtidsa, 386.
Rdjavdrttika, 2t6, 219, 404.
Raja Vira Hamvira, 311.
Raja-yoga, 254.
Rajjab Das, 382.
Ralcmabai, 301.
Ral-pa-Chan, 213.
Ram, vernacular pronnnciation of R
INDEX
435
Kama, 47 ; a man, 47 ; a partial in-
carnation of Vishnu, 78, 83, 98 ;
a full incarnation of Vishnu; the
eternal Brahman, 99, 100; in the
Adhydtma Ramdyana and other
literature, 190, 250; among Rama-
nandis, 323, 328.
Rama-bhaktas, devotees of Rama, 251.
Ramachandra, 248.
Rama Charan, 334, 345.
Rdmacharita^ 280.
Rdma'Charit-mdnas ^ 329, 381 ; relation
to Valmlki's Ramdyana^ the Adhydt-
ma and other Ramayanas, 329.
Ramai Pandita, 271.
Ramakantha, 385.
Ramakrishna, a Mimamsist, 367.
Ramakrishna, a Saiva, 346.
Ramakrishna Hart, mantra of Maratha
bhaktas, 235 ; also of the Vishnu-
svami sect, 235.
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, 357.
Ramami^ra, 241.
Ramananda, 299, 311, 323 ff., 380;
date, 323; his dependence on a
Ramaite sect of the South, 324 ; not
a member of the Sri-Vaishnava sect,
323 f. ; regarded Rama as the Supreme,
323; his influence, 327, 328; prob-
ably did not found a sect, 328.
Ramananda Rai, 308.
Ramananda Sarasvati, 289, 368, 369.
Ramanandis, 300, 327 ff. ; ascetics, 327 ;
their large numbers, 327 ; laity, 328 ;
mantra, 324; sect-mark, 323; sam-
pradaya, 327 ; use the Adhydtma
Ramdyana^ 324 ; and the Agastya-
StitJkshna Samvdda^ ^2^\ occasional
use of the irl-bhdshya, 325 ; caste
relations, 325 ; use of the vernacular,
326 ; Hindu worship retained, 326 ;
sects of direct Ramanandi origin,
328.
Ramanuja, author of the Srl-bhdshya^
127, 242, 244, 287,379; other books,
379 ; his system ViSishtadvaita, 1 70,
242 ; his teaching in relation to the
sutras, 128; his influence, 220; won
Yadava Prakasa to Vaishnavism,
222; succeeded Yamuna at Srirangam,
242 ; his position, 242, 379 ; attacks
^ahkara and Bhaskaracharya in his
Sri-bhdshya, 242; his bhakti, 220,
243 ; holds the Samuchchhaya doc-
trine, 243 ; his punctilious observance
of caste-rules, 244; taught Sodras
and Out castes, 244 ; his influence on
Satanis, 321; yet never broke caste-
rules, 244; used the pavitra^ 244;
his controversial journeys, 245 ; he
sought to substitute Pancharatra, for
Vaikhanasa Samhitas, wherever he
went, 182, 244; his flight from Sri-
rangam, 245; his stay at Melkote
in Mysore, 183, 245; his return to
Sri-rangam, 245 ; is worshipped as
an incarnation^ 245 ; biographical
material, 246, 380; influence, 264,
349-
Rdma'piirva-tdpanXya C/., 189, 189 f.,
364,381.
Rdmarahasya U,^ 364.
Rama sect in South India, 189 f., 249;
followed Sankara, 175; opposed to
Samuchchhaya doctrine, 250; their
mantra, 190, 250; a yantra, 190;
a secret alphabet, 190; literature,
189 f., 250, 380; the Adhydtma
Rdntdyatta, 250.
Ramatirtha U., 364.
Ramatoshin! Sarma, 356.
Rdma-uttara-tdpanlya 6^., 189, 190,
364, 381.
Rdma-vijayaj 374.
Ramdyana, 44, 366, 373, 381 ; date,
45 ; first stage of, 46 ; religion of
first stage, 47; second stage of, 78,
83 ; religion of second stage, 83 f. ;
third stage of, 85 ; interpolations
from didactic Epic, 99; Sanra ma-
terial, 152, 390; a passage in which
Rama is called the Supreme, 189;
vernacular versions, 2 2 8, 296, 301,
303. 367.
Ram Das, a Sikh guru, 337, 340.
Ram Das, a Marafha bhakta, who in-
fluenced Sivaji, 300, 374.
Ram-dasis, Ram Das's sect, found to-day
in the Marafha country, 301 ; have
their own mantra and sect-mark, 301 ;
a Ram-dasI monastery, 301.
Ram-dvara, a Ram Sanehi prayer-house,
346.
RameSvara, 383.
Ram Mohan Ray, 355.
Ram Rai, 340.
Ram Rafijas, 340.
Ram Sanehls, 334, 345; their prayer-
houses called Rkmndvaras, 346 ; no
following of laymen, 346.
Ramya-jamatri-muni, 319, 380.
Ranachor Rai, a title of Krishna, 302.
Rdnaka, 367.
RanchodjI Diwan, 356.
fa '
436
INDEX
Rangaramaniija, 320, 365.
Raona, 283, 403.
Rasas, 360.
Rase^varas, a sect of Pa^upata ^aivas,
190, 254.
Rashtrakutas, 216.
Rdshtrapdla-pariprichchhd^ 207, 396.
Raske Pada^ 318, 378.
Ras-lila, 310* 3 1 5-
Rathakranta, 356.
Ratnachandra, 361, 405.
RcUnakaran4<i*irdvakdchdra^ 216, 219,
403.
Ratnapani, 273.
Ratnasambhava, 273.
Ratnatekhara, 360, 402.
RcUna-vivarana^ 377.
Raurava A,, 193, 257.
Kavana, 161.
Ravikirti, 217, 403.
Ravishena, 217, 403.
Rayanasdra^ 403.
Reconciliation of philosophies and re-
ligions, 287, 289, 290 n.
Reformed Literature, 382.
Release, from repeated death in other
world, 35; release from transmigra-
tion, 36, 37 ; rise of philosophy of,
52; in Veddnia'SiUraSi 127; release
in Buddhism, anhihilation ace. to
some texts, 64 ; not annihilation, ace.
to most, 64.
Revana, one of the five original Linga-
yat ascetics, 260.
Ribhus, 10.
RichfrichaSf hymn, hymns,of praise, 6, i o.
Riddles, 22.
Ridhpur, 322.
Right-hand Sakta movement, 267, 357 ;
possibly the outcome of a Mediaeval
reformation, 268 ; possibly created by
Sahkara, 175; a Smarta movement,
a68, 357; Srivridya, 269, 358; the
bhakti school, 269, 359.
Rigveda^ Chap. I. esp. 4, 6ff., isff.,
362 ; The name, 10 ; composition of
hymns, 7 ; teaching of hymns, 8 ;
literary dialect of, 7; family groups
of hymns, 8 ; collection of groups, 8,
9, ID, 16; arrangement of the hymns,
9 ; magical effects of recitation of,
42 ; religion, 362 ; religion of books
i-ix, 10 ff.; gods, 12, 15; myth-
ology, 363 ; worship, 13; philosophy,
363; date, 17; interpretation, 17;
religion of book x, 20, 21; relation
to Sdffian, 18; to Yajtis^ 20; to
Atharvan, 24; Hrahmanas of, 25 (T.;
commentary, 295.
Rigvidhdnoj 42, 366.
Jiijwvimald, 367.
Rik — Rigveda.
Rishabhtty one of the Jain Tirthakaras,
279.
Rishahhapatickdiika^ 279, 401.
Rishi, 8.
Rita, 3, 12.
River-worship, 41, 43, 48.
Rohini, mother of Balarama, 98 n. 11.
Rudra, 10, 21, 22 ; called Siva, 32, q.v. ;
in verse Upanishads, 59.
Rtidrahridaya U*y 364.
Rudraksha, 261.
Rudrdkshajdbdla U., 364. '
Rudra-PaSupati, i.e. Siva, 103.
Rudra-sampradaya, 315, 327.
Rudra^ydmala 71, 265, 388.
Rukmini, 301.
RQpa, 308, 309, 376.
Sahara- Sahkara-vildsa^ 387.
Sabara-svamin, 123 n. 2 ; 135, 136, 168,
. 367.
Sabda, sound, the Word, 201.
Sacraments, 39.
Sacred thread, worn by twice-bom
Hindus, 31 ; not worn by any full
Lingayat, 261 n. i.
Sacrifice, Indo-European, i ; Indo-Iia-
nian, 3; Vedic, 6, 7. 11, 14, 22;
given up by some Vanaprastha, 29 ;
supremacy of, in times of Brahma-
nas, 3 1 ,6 1 ; supernatural powers of, 31 .
SacriHcer, of Vwlic times, 13, 14.
Sacrificial worship, gradually weakened
by the temple-cult, 51 ; steady decay,
140, 170.
Sadana, 323, 381.
Sadananda, 286, 368.
Saddharma Putuiaflka., 92, 112, 114^1
396; two editions, 114, 157; new
edition, 157, 275; influence, 115.
Sadhana, 203.
Sddhdran Siddhdnt^ 318, 378.
Sadhs, 334, 344.
vSadhu, 327, 335.
Sadhubandana, 405. ^
Saduktikarnamrita, 238 n. '
Sagara, name of one of the ten ordenof
Sankara's sannyasis, 1 74. '
Sahaja, an erotic form of Bnddhiiio,
273-
Sahajananda, 318, 384.
Sahajo Bai, 383.
INDEX
437
Sahasranamasmriti, 402.
Sahasrara, name of one of the occult
circles in the body, ace. to Sakta
Yoga, 369.
Sahijdharis, 340.
^iva Agamas, see Agamas.
Saiva Bhdshya, 287, 295, 385 | date,
349, used by all groups of Agamic
Saivas in South India, 350, 351 ; a
^ synopsis, 353.
J^aiva Dar^ana, 255.
^aiva literature, loi, 145, 190, 351, 346,
, 383.
Saiva Puranas, 383.
Saiva-samaya-nerif 257, 386.
^aiva Siddhanta, the Sanskrit school,
255 ; the Tamil school, 255, 257.
Saiva-Siddhdnta-dipikd^ 350, 384, 385.
^aiva temples in Tamil land, 349.
Saiva theists, 82 ; heterodox, 82 ; Saiva
theology, loi.
Saiva Upanishads, 80, 383.
Sajjangarh, 301.
Sakadvipa, Scythia, 152.
Sakadviplya IJrahmans, i.e. Magians,
' 205.
Sakala, name of one of the Sakhas, or
recensions of the Rigveda, 267.
Sakalakirti, 120, 360, 402, 404.
Sdkdra-siddfii, 239, 375.
Sakas, Scythians, 83.
Sakta sannyasTs, 357.
Sakta sect : see Saktas; I5cf., 199, 209;
accepts people of all classes, 204 ;
system, 167 flf.; literature, 150, 199,
209, 265, 353; Tantras, 199, 265,
354 ff'/ 388 ; Sakta Upanishads, 266,
389 ; Sakta poetry in the vernaculars,
356 ; magic, 200 ; cult, 151, 200, 202,
204 ; the offerings, 203 ; sacrifice,
animal and human, 203 , 354 ; Sakta
ideas among Vaishnavas, 183; among
i^aivas, 194 ; among Buddhists, 209
ff. ; among Jains, 2i3;,j5akta yoga,
186, 195, 200, 201 f., 204, 210, 213;
the Right-hand Movement, 267, 295,
, 357 ; the Bhakti movement, 269, 359.
Sdktdnanda-tarahginl^ 389.
Saktas, worshippers of a goddess as the
/cz/^// of her lord, 150 ; their Trimurti,
149. See Sakta sect.
Sakii, energy ; divine energy ; the god-
dess in all sects, 150, 184, 194; the
^akti as sound, 201.
6akti-vi^ishtadvaita, 287, 353.
^akya clan, clan of the Buddha, 62.
Salagrama, 293.
F
Salikanatha, 169, 367.
Salimabad, 305.
Sam, 153.
Sdmachdfliaiaka^ 403.
Samadhi, t. t. of the Yoga system, 253.
Samddhirdja^ 159, 375, 396.
Sdman = Sdmaveda,
Samantabhadra, a Jain, 316, 319, 371,
403 ; DhySni-Bodbisattva, 373.
Samantapdsadikd^ 303.
Samanya, 1. 1. of Vai^shika system, 1 34.
Samardichchhakahdy 315, 380, 401.
Samavaya, t. t. of Vaiseshika system,
134.
Samavdydhgay of the Jain canon, 399.
Sdmaveda, 10, 15, 19, 30, 363; the
hymn-book of the singer-priests, 18 ;
formation of, i8f. ; relation to Rtk^
18 ; magic power of metres, 21 ; ritual
363 ; Brahmanas of, 25.
Sdmavidhdna Brdhmana^ 43, 363, 365.
Satfiayasdrana0kd, 405.
Samayasdraprdbhritaf 319, 381, 403.
Samayasnndara, 360, 403.
Samaya Tantras, 368.
Samba, 153, 305.
Sdmba /*., 305, 372, 390.
Sambara, 265.
idnibavya Grihya Sutra^ 365.
Sambhar Lake, 383.
Sambhogakaya, one of the bodies of a
Buddha, 159.
^ambhudeva, 350, 385.
Sambhu-paddhdtiy 385.
SamhitaSy see Vaishnava Samhitas.
Samhitas, of the Yajm^eda^ 26 ; list,
27-.
SamhUopanishad, 363,
Samkarshana, a Vaishnava divinity, one
of the vyfihas, 98, 184.
Samkshepa Rimdyatta^ 381.
Sammitlya school of Buddhism, 395.
Samprati, said to have been a grandson
of A^oka and to have favoured the
Jains, 77.
Saihsara, the process of transmigration,
35 ; is eternal, 35.
Sarhsk^rita, 42.
Samstdra^ 400.
Saihtana, a series^ a 1. 1. of the Sautran-
tikas, ig6.
Samuchchhaya doctrine, 239, 243.
Samvegarahgaidldf 401.
Sarhvritisatya, apparent truth in the
Madhyamaka system, 116.
Samynktagama, Sansk. for Sathynttani-
kaya, 109; in Chinese, 155.
f3
438
INDIiX
Saihynttanikaya, third section of the
Buddhist Sutta Pitaka, 71, 109, 392,
393-
Sanaka S., 268, 389.
Sanakadi Sampradaya, 327.
Sanandatta S,, 268, 389.
Sanatana, 308, 309, 376.
Sanatkumdra S., 268, 389.
Sandhya, 293.
Sandilya U., 364.
Sdndilya-bhaktusutrat 233, 240, 269,
374-
Sanghahhadra, 395.
Sahkalpa-nirdkaranat 258, 386.
Saiikalp<i5uryodaya, 319, 380.
^ahkara, name of a famous sannyasT,
author of the earliest surviving bhash-
ya on the Veddnta-sutras, 127, 170,
286, 367; date, 171 ; his teaching in
relation to the suiraSy 128; system,
171 if.; similarity to Madhyamaka
and Vijnanavadin Buddhism, 172;
his works, 171, 364; his splendid
capacity, 174 ; his sannyasis and san-
nyasinis, 174, 327 f. ; his monasteries
174; his influence, I74ff. 198, 274,
293 ; legendary lives, 1 75 n. 4 ; some
think he originated the Smarta wor-
ship of the five gods, 1 76 ; . attacked
by Bhaskara, 221 ; called a reincarna-
tion of the demon Manimat by Madh-
va, 237 ; connected with the Sakta
system in mediaeval tradition, 266 ; a
remarkable image of ^., 268.
»^ankara MiSra, 224, 370.
Sankarananda, the Buddhist, 225.
Sankarananda, the Vedantist, 223, 287,
,365.
Saiikara vijaya : two documents on
Saiikara's controversial triumphs, one
ascribed to Anandagiri, the other
to Madhava, 1750. 4, 237 n. i, 252,
Sahkhdyana Aranyakay 363.
Sdhkhdyana Brdhmafta^ 27.
Sahkhdyana Grihya Sutra^ 365.
Sdhkhdyana Srauta Sutra^ 365.
Sdhkhya-kdrikd^ 93, 123, 368; funda-
mental text of Sankhya system, 129 ;
source of the Kdrikd, 129; author,
129; date, 129; analysis, 130 f. ;
criticized by Vasubandhu, 161.
Sdhkhya-kdrikd'bhdshya, 176, 369.
Sdhkhya-pravachana'bhdshyay 289, 369.
Sdhkhya-pravachana-sutra^ see Sdhkh-
ya-suiras,
Sdhkhya-sdra, 369.
Sdhkhya-sutraSf 288, 369.
Sdhkhya-sutravriUi, 369.
Sankhya sjrstem, 368 ; germ o^ 60, 131,
rise of, 6 1 ; an early document, now
lost, 44, 80 ; in GUd^ 90 ; in Maiird'
yana 6'., 93; in ChiUikd U., 93; in
didactic Epic, 93, 97 ; in doctrine of
Vyuha, 98 ; fundamental authority is
Sdhkhya-kdrikd^ q. v. ; atheistic, 130;
dualistic, 130 ; rationalistic, 129 ; sys-
tem, i3off. ; attacked in Lahkdvaia'
ra-sutra, 161 ; by Vasubandhu, 176;
398 ; an order of Sankhya sannj^sis,
131, 289 ; open to all four castes, 131 ;
literature, 129, 176, 233, 288; de-
scribed by Alberuni, 223; inflnoiced
by the Vedantic conception of God,
288.
Sdhkhya-tattva-kaumudiy 177, 288,368.
Sdhkhya-vritti-sdra, 369.
Sankhya-yoga, an early theistic form of
the Sankhya philosophy, expressed in
the Shashtitantrdf 289.
Sanklrtana, 300, 301, 302, 303.
Sannydsa U,, 95, 364.
Sannyasa Upaidshads, 80, 94 £
Sannyasinis, 174.
Sannyasis, monks, of various systems,
29, 40, 41, 47, 52, 60 ; of Uie Vedan-
ta, 52 ; gave up the old worship, 53;
place in the Asramas, 81 ; xe-organ- .
ized by Sankara in ten orders, 174;
nuns also, 174; see Nuns; see also
DandTs and Nagas ; these orders exist
to-day, 129, 174; the strictness of
their discipline, 327 ; ,their large num-
bers, 32J.
Sanskrit, o, 42 ; Paninean Sanskrit, 42»
105 ; mixed Sanskrit, 105 ; Buddhist
Sanskrit, 105.
Sanskrit ^aiva Siddhanta,^255, 258, 349,
385; recognizes the Agamas, 349;
mainly a school of Brimmans, 255,
349; its philosophy Vilishtadviita,
255, 349 ; literature in Sanskrit, 255^
349» 385. .
Santa LUdnirita^ 374.
Santdna A.y 193.
Santana Acharyas, of Tamil Saiva Sid-
dhanta, 258.
Santana-Ganapati, 270.
Santarakshita, 397.
Santa Vijaya^ 374.
idntideva^ 208, 210, 397.
Sdntindthacharita, 405.
Sdnti P., 404.
^antisiiri, 278.
INDEX
439
Sanydya-ratndvali, 375.
Sapta-paddrtha-nirupana^ or Saptapa*
dart hi. 224, 369.
Saptapaddrthl^ 369.
Saptaia(i=i Chaiidi-Mdhdtmya^ 151.
Sarabha 6^., 364.
Sarada, a name of Sarasvati, as goddess
of speech and letters, 174, n. 2. ; name
of a vtatha, monastery, in Dwarka,
founded by Sankara, 1 74.
Sdraddtilaka T'., 267, 271 n. a, 389.
Parana, 261.
Sarasvatl, wife of Brahma, goddess of
speech and letters, 267, 214, 227;
name of one of the ten orders of
Sahkara's sannyasis, 174, 286.
SarasvaCi7'ahasya U., 364.
Sarasvadstotray 401.
Sdratthapakdsinty 393.
Sariputra, 394.
J^ariraka, the embodied one, Brahman,
126.
Sdrfraka-sutraSf 126.
Sdrtraka U.^ 364.
Sarvabhauma, 289 n. 2, 308, 371, 376.
Sdrvabhauma-niruktiy 371.
Sarvadarianasahgraha^ 225, 239, 255,
288, 289, 290, 295, 349, 350, 367,
3691 370, Vlh 375, 3«o» 385, 386,
390-
Sarvajna-mitra, 212, 398.
Sarvdrthasiddhij 216, 219, 403.
Sarvastivadin Council, 108.
Sarvastivadin school, a Buddhist school
found in Kashmir, 68, 393 ; used
Sanskrit, 68 ; possessed an Abhid-
harma Pitaka, 68, 107, 207, 394;
Vinaya Pitaka, 108, 393 ; Sutra Pija-
ka, 108, 394; commentaries, 108;
literature, 107, 156, 207, 394; Chinese
Trs., 156, 207; Tibetan Trs. 207;
philosophy called Vaibhashika, 107,
108, 156; combated in Hindu philo-
sophies, 136 ; converts, 160.
Sarva- Upanishat-sdra, 364.
Sarvokta A.y 193.
Sarvottara A,j 193.
Sdstra-dlpika ^ 221, 367.
Sdstra-dlpikd'vydkhydf 367.
6astras, 8i.
Sat, i.e. the Real, 331, 343.
Satadushanty 319, 380.
Satanis, a group of J^udras taught by
Ramanuja, 245, 321 ; they exercise
priestly functions in certain temples,
, 321.
SatapanchdHka-stotra^ 395.
Satapatha Brdhmana^ the Brahmana of
the Vajasaneyins of the White Yajus^
, 27, 28, 363.
SatarudriyafSL hymn in honour of Siva,
, 22,383.
Sathakopa, 246.
Satnamis, 334, 342 ff. 382; probably
organized among Outcastes, 344; a
rising and a battle, 343 ; reorganized
by Jagjivan Das, 343 ; vegetarian ab-
stainers, 343 ; filthy practices, 343 ;
advance by Ghazi Das, 343.
Sat Saif 379.
Satsandarhka, 309, 377.
Sattadaval, 321.
Sattasatf 165, 215.
Sattvata, or Satvata, an ancient tribe,
50, 98.
Satyabhama, 301.
Satyabbeda, dualism, a form of the
Vedanta, 128,
Sdtydyana U.^ 364.
Saubhdgyalakshml U., 364.
Saunaf^ya^ 24.
Saundardnanda'KdT^ya, 116, 395.
Saundaryalahar%y 265 n. 5, 266, 2681
388.
Saura P., contains a polemic against
Madhvism, 237 n. i, 372.
Saura S,, 183, 205.
Sauras, the sect of Sun-worshippers^
151 ff.; 205, 269, 294; their form of
the Trimurti, 149, 152 ; their litera-
ture, 151 fif., 205, 270, 390 ; their
theology 205; Saura worship, 152 ;
Saura images and temples, 152 f.,
269 ; their priests were Magians, 305.
Sautrantikas, a Buddhist school, J06 ;
their philosophy, 106, 114, 136.
Savitri, 10.
Savitri, 48.
SdvitfJ U.y 364.
Savya, 9n.
Sayana, 29, 285, 294, 295.
Scepticism, 21.
Schools, of the ^igveda^ 8, 9, 10, 19;
of the Sdmaveda^ i8f. ; of the Pa-
jurveda, \^i,\ of the Atharvaveda,
23 f. ; branching of the schools, 31 ;
progress of the schools, 25, 31 ; used
for the education of the three castes,
31 ; women and Sudras excluded,
31 ; Brahmans alone allowed to teach,
31; literature of the schools, 37;
the Upanishads in the schools, 55.
Scythians, 78.
Sea of Milk, 99.
440
INDEX
Sectarians, 82, 292.
Sectarian bhashyas on the Vedanta-
sutras, 222, 287.
Sect-mark, Tilaka^ 168, 202 ; all have
a phallic significance, 202.
Sect of the Mahdrdjahs^ 315.
Sects, rise of, 82 ; characteristics of,
122, 167, 220, 292; decay of, 292.
J^ekkirar, 256, 385.
Self-sacrifice, 209.
Semi-Lihgayats, 263.
Sena, 328, 381.
Sena Panthis, 328.
Sesha, 48, 98.
Seivara MJmdmsdy 286, 367, 380.
Setubandhaj 389.
Sevak-bdPtty 378.
Sewapanthis, 340.
Shadakshara Deva, 387.
Sha4darianasavit*chchhaya, 214, 360,
371,401.
Shaddarianasamuchchhayat'ikdy 402.
Shaddarhnavichdray 371, 402.
Shadvifhia Brdhmana, 27,-28, 363.
Shains, 312.
SAashtitatttra, a manual of theistic
Yoga by Varshaganya, now lost, 94,
368; relation to Sdhkhya-kdrikdi
129; contents sketched in Ahirbti-
dhnya Samhitdf 1 29.
Shatchakra U., 266, 364, 389.
Shatprdbhrita^ 360, 403.
Shatsthala, the six sthalas or stages of
spiritual progress among the Vira
Saivas, 261, 262.
Sho4o^a upachdra^ the * sixteen opera-
tions ' of image-worship, 51 n. i, 294.
Siddha A., 193.
Siddhdnta-chandrikdi 367.
Siddhdnta-dipamt 385.
Siddhdnta-jdhnavif 376.
Siddhdnta-leia^ 368.
Siddhdnta-muktdvati^ 370.
Siddhdnta-rahasyUf 316, 377.
Siddhdnia-ratna^ 376.
Siddhanta Sastras, 258.
Siddhdnta'Hkhdmani^ 382, 387.
Siddhardtna /*., 264, 387.
Siddharshi, 215, 401.
Siddhasena Divakara, 164, 400.
Siddhasena Gani, 164, 401 ; date, 165;
his bhashyas, 165.
Siddha-siddhdnta-paddhatit 384.
Siddhavirana, 387.
Siddhitraya^ 241, 379.
Sijjambhava, 400.
Sikandar Lodi, 332.
Sikhs, 334, 336 ff., 382; the literature,
382 ; Hinduism finds access to the
community, 338, 339, 340, 341 ; the
guru worshipped as God, 338 ; rise
of the martyr-spirit» 338; the cnlt,
340 f. ; the Sikhs divided into two
communities, 340 ; sub-divisions,
Sikshdy 42.
^ikshd'pdtri, 378.
iikshdsamuchchhayat 208, 397.
^ilanka, 214, 278, 279, 401.
iilappadhikdram, 121.
STlavamsa, 394.
Simhalese, 154.
Singh, 339.
Singhs, 340.
Singinad, a whistle, 348.
Singi Raja, 353, 387.
SishyaUkhadharma'kdvyfiy 209, 398.
^ishya-varga monasteries, 26a n. i.
SiSna-devah, phallus-worshippers, 5,
102.
Sltd U., 364.
Sittars, a sect of non-idolatrous Puri-
tans, 352, 387 ; their hymns in the
Siva-vdkyaniy 352, 387.
i^iva, a new name for Kudra, 32, 47, 48 ;
^iva in Upanishads, 58, 59 ; in second
stage of Epics, 83; in TiimGrti,
148 f. ; rise of sect of Siva, 82 ; m
third stage of Epics, 92; identified
with Brahman, 10 1 ; bis theophanies,
10 1 ; has eight forms, 102 ; Laknli&as
teach that he becomes incarnate, 146 ;
adored by Bhagavatas as equal with
Vishnu, 142, 175, 181, 182; one of
the Five Gods, 179; Siva in the
Agamas, i94f. ; symbols used in his
worship in tne house, 293 n. 2 ; wor-
ship in his temples, 294.
Sivabhagavatas, devotees of Siva, early
sectarians, 82 n.
Sivaditya, 224, 370.
Siva-drishti, 198, 259, 386.
^ivadvaitaj 255 n. 3, 351.
Swddvaita-mafljatif 387.
^ivagunayogi, 353, 383, 387.
Sivajl, 300, 301, 339 n. 4, 356.
Siva-jMna-bodha^ 257, 258, 351, 385.
Siva-jtidna-siddhi^ 257, 258, 385.
&va-jnana-yogi, 347, 351, 386.
Sivanand, 346, 384.
Sivdnandalaharfj 383.
&va Nanlyana, 334, 345.
Siva Narayanis, 334, 345 ; mostly low-
class people, 345 ; monasteries called
INDEX
441
Dhams, 345 ; hold Siva Narayana an
incarnation, 345.
^^\^r '39» 372, 383, 384; originally
a Saiva work, 179; contains Lakuli^
material, 179; Malayalim Tr., 347,
384; the Vayaviya S. contains an
account of the Sanskrit School of
ISaiva Siddhanta, 226, 350, 385.
Siva-prakdia^ 258, 384, 386.
siva PrakaSa Svami, 347, 383, 387.
Sivdrkamanidlpikdy a comm. on the
^aiva Bhdshya, 295, 350, 385.
Siva S., 348, 384.
Sivasahasrandmay 383.
Siva Sakti, 194.
otva-sutraSy 193, 198, 386.
iiva-sutra-vdrttikay 386.
iiva'SutravimarHnty 259, 386.
Sivdyanay 346, 383.
Siva-yoga-pradipikdy 387.
^iva-yogi, 387.
Sivopadhyaya, 352, 386.
Six systems of Hindu philosophy, 124;
theory of their harmony, 228.
Sixteen operations of Hindu worship,
51 n. I, a6i, 294.
Sixty-three Saiva saints, 256.
Skanda P., 139, 179, 271, 372, 385,
389 ; Tamil Tr., 256 ; Tel. Tr., 346,
383.
Skmida U,y 143, 181, 364, 374.
Skanda-ydniala T.j 265.
Slavonic people, i.
^lokavdrtika^ of Kumarila, 168, 367; of
Vidyananda, 216, 219, 404.
Smarta Brahman, his worship, 293,
294.
Smartas, from Smriti, 141 ; used of
orthodox men who do not keep up
the Srauta sacrifices, 141 ; most are
followers of Sahkara, 175, 180; and
worship the five gods, 179, 206, 293.
Who initiated the custom? 179;
time of its origin, i79f. ; literature,
141, 178, 179, 180, 226, 293, 373;
their interest in the Right-hand Sakta
movement, 228, 268; the domestic
chapel of a Smarta, 293 n. 3.
Smarta temples, 293.
Snidrta-siitray 141.
Smriti, lit. remembrance; t. t. for re-
velation of the second grade, 43,
141.
Smriti Kmtshibhay 285 n. 2, 295, 367,
373.
Snake-worship, 41, 43, 48.
Sobhana, 278, 279, 401.
So-Daruy 338.
Sodhana, purification, 253.
Soma, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 14, 15; Soma
hymns, 10, 14, 18 ; Soma-sacrifice,
3, 14, 18, 22, 41.
Somadeva, 279, 282, 404.
Somananda, 194, 198, 259, 386.
Somanatha of PalakOrki, 264, 387.
Soma Pavamana, 10.
Soma'Sambhu-paddhcLti-vritHy 385 .
Somasundara, 360, 402.
SomeSvara, 367.
Sorcery, taught in Saktism, 203.
Soul, in Hinduism, eternal, 35 ; in
early Buddhism, declared non-exis-
tent, 64; in Vedanta, identical with
Brahman, 127; in the PaRcharatra
system, 185.
Sound, eternity, 125.
South India, Hinduized, 36.
Spanda-kdrikdSy 198, 386.
Spanda-pradJpikdy 386.
Spanda-sandoha, 386.
Spanda-vivritiy 386.
Sphatika, 393 n. 2.
Sphut-padtty 318, 378.
Sraddha, 39.
Sragdhara metre, 205.
Sragdhard'StotrUy 212.
Srauta, 38 ; used of a man who keeps
up the Srauta sacrifices, 141, 293.
^rauta-sutras, 38 f., 365 ; date, 38 ;
^ contents, 39, 140.
Srdvakdchdray 301, 405.
^ravana Belgola, 75, 282.
^i«Lakshmi, 246.
Sfibhdshyay Ramanuja's commentary
on the Vedanta sUtraSf 220, 242, 244,
287, 379 ; its powerful influence, 220,
, 222, 325, 349, 350.
Sri Bhatt, 305, 376.
Sri-chakra, one of the six cbakras, or
centres of occult influence in the body,
as taught in ^akta Yoga, 267.
Sri Chand, 340.
Srichandrasuri, 278.
Sri-Datta sampradaya, 248.
Sridhara, the Vai%shika writer, 224,
Sridhara, the Marathi poet, 301, 374.
Sridhara Dasa, 238 n.
Sridhara S^mi, 231, 239, 269, 297,
301, 308, 359» 373.
Sp-harsha, 223, 225, 371.
Snkdlachakra 71, 272, 274, 398.
Srikanta MiSra, 239, 375.
Srikantha, 370.
44^
INDEX
^rikantha 6ivacharya, 287, 295, 349,
385 ; his Saiva Bhdshya, 349, 385 ;
his date, 349.
SrUkara-bhashyOf 264, 387, 387.
^rinath, 383.
Srihgeri, name of a matha, monastery,
in the Mysore, founded by bahkara,
, i74> 285.
Snnivasa, a follower of Ramannja, 320,
, 380.
Srinii^^ a follower of Nimbarka, 222,
240, 287, 376.
Srfpdiacharitray 401, 405.
^rlpdlagopalakathdy 402.
i^ripati, 287. See ^ripati Pandita-
radhya.
Sripati Panditaradhya, one of the five
original Lingayat ascetics, 260, 264,
, 387.
Sri-pemmbudiir, Ramanuja's birth-
place, 181, 246, 320.
Srirangam, the metropolitan Sri-Vaish-
nava shrine at Trichinopoly, 241, 245,
246, 321 ; a theological school there
^ also, 241,242, 319.
Sri-^ila, 260.
Sri Sampradaya, 327.
^rS'SubodhinJf o^*j*j.
Sri-Sukacharya, 374.
ir^-vachana-bhushatia^ 380.
^ri-Vaishnava Sampradaya, 246.
Sri-Vaishnava sect, 188, 240, 319;
only Vishnu, his consorts and incar-
nations recognized, 2^7 ; Radha not
recognized, 247 ; the AJvars regarded
as leaders and teachers, 187, 241 ;
the Acharyas, 241 ; system, 242 f. ;
mantra, 186, 188, 246; the dvaya
mantra, 246 n. ; sect-mark, 186, 246 ;
Sampradaya, 246 ; temple-ritual, 320;
tapa, i.e. branding, 186, 246; guru,
186; initiation, diksha, 186; holds
the Samuchchhaya doctrine, 239, 243;
6ri-Vaishnava literature, 187, 240,
379 ; Sri-Vaishnava sannyasis, 243 ;
non-Brail man iSri-Vaishnava ascetics,
243 n. ; Sri-Vaishnavas are very strict
in caste matters, 247; the two sub-
sects, 319, 320; two forms of the
sect-mark, 320 ; seats of the pontiffs,
/, 320.
Srivarddhadeva, 217, 219, 404.
Srividya, the right-hand worship of the
Devi with a view to release, 269,
358.
Sri Vyasa Raja, 303.
ori-Yogindra Acharya, 282, 405.
i^nitasagara, 360, 405.
^ruti, revealed scripturci 38, 43, <k);
comes from Brahman, 1 27 ; is etemal,
127.
Stavamdld, 376.
Sthalas, stages of spiritual progress, of
which six are oistinguished in the
Vira Saiva system, 261.
Sthanakavasis, 359.
Sthaviras, a Buddhist school, 104 ; the
Sthavira Canon of Ceylon, 104.
Sthira-linga, 103.
Sthulabhadra, a Jain leader, 75.
Stobhas, 19.
Stotra, a sacred ode in praise of a
divinity, 214.
Student, one of the four a&rama's, 39, 40. *
Stupa, a burial mound, Buddhist, 71,
72, no.
Suali, 234.
fubdld U., 364, 379.
ubha Tantras, 3o£
Subhachandra, 360, 361, 405.
Subhagodaya, 388.
Snbha^rishna, 3 10.
^ubha^ila, 360, 403.
Subhaumacharitraf 405.
SubodhinJy 316, 377.
Subrahmanya, 148, 347*
Sub-vyuhas, 185.
Sucharitami^ra, 367.
Sudar4ana Bhatfa, 346, 380.
Suddhadvaita, 387.
Suddhddvaitamdrtatufa, 316, 377.
§udra, 16, 21, 36; duties, 401 ; Sudras
admitted to Safikhya and Yoga as-
cetic orders, 61 ; Sudra worship, 36 ;
Sudras usually not sectarians^ 82.
Suftism, influence in India, 384, 331;
powers, 331 ; the Siift conceptioa of
God, 331 ; God the xeal, 331; the
path, 331 ; the teacher, 331 ; Soft prac-
tice like Yoga, 331 f. ; tends to reduce
all religions to equality, 333 ; a SQfi
scarcely a Muslim, 333.
Suka, 287, 373. ^
Suka S., 388.
Suka T,j 308.
Suka-bhashyat 387, 397, 373.
Sukacharya, 397, 374.
SukapahhJya^ 380.
Sukarahasya U.^ 364.
Sukhdmaniy 341.
Sukhdva^vyuha^ the long^ text, ii7»
118, 396.
SukhdvcUfvyuhaf the shorter, 117, 118,
158) 396 ; Japanese translations, 375.
INDEX
443
^kh Nidhdn^ 381.
Sukra, 47. _
Sukshtna A., 193, 264.
Sulva-sutras, 42, 365.
Sumahgalavildsinl, 393.
Sumatra, 168, 391.
Sundar Das, 342.
Sundar Das, the younger, a Dadupanthi
poet, 341, 382.
Sundar Vilas, 382.
Sundara Bhatta, 376.
Sundara Deva, 383.
Sundara-murti, or Sundarar, 193, 196,
197, 256, 385.
Sundarar, see Sundara-murti.
Sunga dynasty, 78, 83.
Sunya P., 271.
Sunyata, the Mahayana philosophy of
vacuity, 114.
^unyavada, the vacuity system of Nagar-
juna, called also Madhyamaka, 116,
136, 271.
Suprabha A., 193.
Suprabhdta-stava, 399.
Suprabheda A., 193, 260 n. 2, 264.
Sur Das, 316, 377.
Surat Gopal, 335.
Sure^varacharya, or MandanamiSra, 169,
367.
Sur S agar y 377.
Sursdrdvahy 377.
Surya, 10; in third stage of Epic, 92 ;
adored by Saura sect, q. v. 205; one
of the five gods, 179, 301 ; believed
to cure leprosy, 153; symbols used
in his worship, 293 n. 2 ; sometimes
not represented by an image, because
he is visible in the sky, 294 n. i.
Siirjfa U., 364, 390.
Suryakanta, 293 n. 2.
Suryaprajfiapti, 166, 219, 399, 403.
Surya-iatakay 205, 390.
Sushumndy 201.
Susiddhikdramahd 7*., 398.
Sitta vS*., 389.
Sutra of Forty -two sections, 118.
Sutra Pitaka, Sansk. for Sutta Pitaka ;
translated into Chinese, 155.
Sutra-bhashyoy of Madhva, 222, 236,
287, 375.
Sutrakritditga-sutray 216, 399.
Sutrdlamkdra, 116, 157, 395.
Sutrapdthy 249, 380.
Sutras, sutra-method of teaching, 38,
116, 124; religion in sutras, 41;
legal sutras, 39, 81.
SutrasamuchchhayGy 208.
Sutta Nipdta, a book of the Buddhist
Sutta^Pitaka, 71, 392.
Sutta Pitaka, second part of the Buddhist
Canon, 64, 390 ; character and con-
tents, 69 ; date, 64, 66, 67 ; relation
of Pali Sutta Pitaka to earliest texts,
68.
Sutta Vibharigay the first book of the
Buddhist Vinaya, 391.
Suvarnaprabhasay 159, 275, 396.
Suvarnapfobhdsottamardjay 212; a
Vijnanavadin work with many Tan-
trik features, 212, 398.
Svddhishthdnaprabheda^ 159, 397.
Svami Hari Das, 318, 378.
Svaml-Narayana, 318 ; his Siishd-pdtrf y
378.
Svami-Narayanis, 318 ; their literature,
378. ' ,
Svaprabhananda Sivacharya, 387.
Svarnabhadra, 293 n. 2.
Svarna-Ganapati, 270.
Svarnarekhdy 293 n. 2.
Svdtmdnubhavay 374.
Svatmarama Yoglndra, 348, 384.
Svayambhu, 273.
Svayambha /*., 275, 399.
Svayambhustotray 403.
Svdyambhuva A,, 193, 194, 264.
^vetambara, a Jain sect, 75, 119, 162.
^vetambara Jain Canon, 76, 120, 121,
162, 163 ff., 399; date of publication,
163; the Anga, 163, 399; the other
works, 163 f.
Svetambara literature, 76, 120, 163,
.213. 277,359,399.
Svetdhfatara U,, 58, 59, 60, 173, 243,
364* 383.
Syadvada, the Jain system of dialectic,
216.
Symbols of divinities, 293.
Syrian Christian Church, 122.
Taittiflya Aranyakat 37, 30, 226, 295,
363.
Taittifiya Brdhmana, 27, 28, 295.
Taittiriya SamAitd, 27, 28, 226, 295.
Taittiriyas, a school ot the B/ack Yajus^
26, 37, 54.
Taittirfya U.y 54, 326, 364.
Talavakdra Brdhmanay 37, 28.
Talavakaras, a school of the Samaveda,
2 7» 54-
Talkad, 297,
Tamas, t. t. of Sankhya system, 130,
148.
Tamil Literature, 147, 187, 196!)., 218,
<.
444
INDEX
320, 228, 296, 347, 351, 378, 379,
383 ffv
Tamil Saiva poet-singers, 187, 196;
their influence, 220.
Tamil ^aivas, 147, 196, 255, 350; they
are scarcely an organized sect, 350 ;
nse Agamas, 191 ; their system the
Tamil !§aiva Siddhanta, 255 ; call
themselves MaheSvaras, 191 ; do not
- accept doctrine of incarnations of
Siva, 191 ; literature in Tamil, 196,
255; monasteries, 350; the majority
of the monasteries under non-Brah-
mans, 350.
Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, 220, 255, 385;
mostly a school of non-Brahmans,
255; their use of the Vedas, 351;
their own literature in Tamil, 255,
350 ; philosophic standpoint Bheda-
bheda, or Advaita (Sivadvaita), 255,
255 n. 3 ; see Tamil Saivas.
Tamil Vaishnavas, 187.
Tandins, a school of the Sdmaveda, 27,
54.
Tmi4ulavaitaltka^ 400.
Tart'gyur^ the second half of the Ti-
betan Buddhist Canon, also called
Tanjur, 277.
Tanjore, 256.
Tanjur^ see Tan-gyur.
Taiika, author of a Vi&ishtadvaita vakya
on the Veddnta-sutraSf 171.
Tanmatras, t. t. of Sankhya system,
131.
Tantrdloka, 386.
Tantraratna, 367.
Tantras, 199 ff., 388; lists, 199, 268;
dates, 199; contents, aoo; Buddhist
Tantras, 210; MiSra Tantras, 268;
Samaya or 6ubha Tantras, 268.
Tantrasdray 355.
Tantras dra of Madhva, 375.
Tantra-vdrtika^ of Rumania, a work
on the Mimamsa, 169, 367.
Tantrism « the iSakta movement ; see
Buddhist Sakta system, and ^akta
sect.
Tapa, branding, i. e. branding the
symbols of Vishnu on the body, 186.
Tapas, 22, 29, 158.
Tara, 212.
Taranatha, 210. •
Tdrdsddhanaiataka, 399.
Tdrasdra U.^ 364.
Tariqat, 331.
Tarka-bhdshdy 224, 371.
Tarka-jvdldy 371, 397.
Tarka-kaumudiy 370.
Tarka Saitgraha, 370.
Tarka-idstra of Vasubandhu, i6t.
7arka-tdnddifay 375.
Tathdgata Guhyaka,2io, 211, 275,398;
contents, 211.
Tattuva-Kattaleij 386.
Tattuva-Pirakdiay 386.
Tattuva Rayar, 352, 387.
Tattva-dloka, 371.
Tattva-dioka-rahasya, 371.
Tattva-chintdmanJy 370, 370 n. i.
Tattva-chtntdmaHi-vydkhydf 371.
Tattva-didhitty 371.
Tattva^didhiti-tippaf^y 371.
Tattva-dlpa-mbandha^ 316, 377.
Tattva-kaumudi-vydkhydy 369.
Tattva-nirupanay 380.
Tattva'praalpikd of Trivikrama, 375.
Taitva-prakdiay 386.
Tattva'prakdiikd^ 375.
Tattvardtnadfpika, 405.
Tattvdrthddkiganta-sutra, byUmas^ti,
the fountain-head of Jain philosophy,
136, 219,400; iSve^mbara commen-
taries, 165 ; Digambara commen-
taries, 216, 219.
Tattvdfihadipikdy 360, 405.
Tattvdrthasdraj a8i, 404.
Tattvdrthasdradlpikdy 120, 360, 403,
405.
Tativdrthankd, 164, 401.
Tattvdrthatikdvydkhydlamkaray 216,
219, 404.'
Tattva-samdsay 288, 369.
Tattva-sahgrahOf 397.
Tattvatrayay 305, 375, 380.
Tattva-vaiidradiy 177, 369.
Taxila, 42.
Tayumanavar, 351, 386.
Teg Bahadur, a Sikh gum, put to death
by Aurungzebe, 338.
Tejobindu U,, 95, 364.
Telugu literature, 228, 260, 264, 296,
297,347» 382.
Temple-priests, must be Brahmans, 50 ;
less regarded than other Brahmans,
Temples, Buddhist and Jain, 113, 120.
Temples, Hindu, first mention of, 41 ;
later common, 48; priests most be
Brahmans, 50, 51 n. i ; opoi only to
the four castes, 50; or^|[in of the
worship, 50 ; classes of temples, 293 ;
the liturgy, 293; temples in which
the five gods are worshipped, 294
n. I.
INDEX
44.5 .
Temple-worship, 50, 5 1 n. ; originally
unorthodox, 50; its growth, 51, 170.
Tengalais, 319, 320.
Teutonic people, i.
Tevardm^ 256.
Tlieism, 41, 47, 58 ; movement to-
wards, in Hinduism and in Buddh-
ism, 78, 82, 83; in 6akta Buddh-
ism, 273, 274 ; in Jainism, 278 f.
Thera Gdthd, a book of verses by
Buddhist monks, 71, 392.
7^her% Gdthd, a book of verses by
Buddhist nuns, 71, 392.
Thupavarhsa^ 394.
Tibet, Buddhism in, 168, 207, 391 ;
Tibetan Buddhist Canon, 275, 391.
Tilaka, sect-mark, 168.
Tilaka, 359, 389.
Tilakacharya, 278, 402.
Tilakamanjart^ 279, 401.
Timmappa Das, 303.*
Tipitaka, Pali for Tripitaka, q. v.
Tirhut, 176, 306.
Tirtha, one of the ten orders of 6ah-
kara's sannyasTs, 174, 304; a Vira
6aiva t. t, 261.
Tirthakaras, see Jain Tirthakaras.
T^rthdvalt, 383.
Tiru-arul-piyan, 255 n. 4, 258, 386.
Tiru Isaipa, 256.
Tirukkalirruppadiydr^ 258, 385.
Tirukkovaiyar, 385.
Tirumalisai, 188.
Tirumantram^ 197, 256, 385.
Tirumangai, one of the Alvars, 188.
Tirumular, 193, 197, 256, 385.
Tiru-murai, the poetic Canon of the
Tamil 6aiva Siddhanta school, 255
"• 5» 256 ; formed by Nambi-andar-
nambi, 256.
Tirumuruhattuppadai, 148, 383.
Tiruppanar, 188.
TirU'puhal, 347, 383.
Tinivdchakam, 197, 256, 385.
Tiruvaiiriyam^ 379.
TirU'Vilaiy-ddar-purduam^ 347, 383.
Tiruviruttam, 379.
Tirtivoymolij 379, 380.
Tiruvuntiydr^ 258, 385.
Tondarippodi, 188.
Tondar-tiruv-antddiy 256, 385.
Tontad Siddhe^vara, 387.
Tota Purl, 357.
Trances, in Buddhism, 64.
Transmigration and Karma, absence of
the doctrine in the early Vedic litera-
ture, 23, 30, 33; apixjars first in the
Upanishads, 33 ; arose still earlier,
33 ; date unknown, 33 ; sources of
the ideas, 34 ; the doctrine, 34 f. ; is
a doctrine of moral requital, 34 ; the
work of the Aryan mind, 34 ; created
by polytheists, 35 ; great influence of,
33 f. ; value of, 35 ; its automatic
character, 61 ; in Rdmdyana^ 48 ;
leads to desire for release, 52 ; re-
lease from, 52.
Trayividya, triple knowledge, i.e. the
three Vedas, 25.
Tree-worship, 43, 48.
Tridandis, Sri-Vaishnava Sannyasis,
243 n. *
Trika, t. t. of Kashmir Saivism, 198.
Trilochana, 299 f., 323, 374, 381.
Trilokasdra, 282, 405.
Trimurti, 148 f.
Tripddvibhutiniahdndrdyana U,^ 364.
Tripitaka (Sansk. for Pali Tipitaka),
the Buddhist Canon in three sec-
tions, 67.
Tripundra, name of the Saiva sect-
mark, 196; used by Saktas also, 202.
Tripura, one of the names of the Devi.
Tripurd'idpanJya U,, 189, 266, 364,
389.
Tripurd U., 266, 267, 358, 364, 389.
Trishashtilakshanamahdpurdnasartgra'
ha, 217, 219, 404,
Trishashti-ialdkd-purtishacharita^ 280,
402.
Trishashtismriti, 283, 405.
Triiikhibrdhmana U., 364.
Trivallur, 320.
Trivarndchdra, 166, 219, 403.
Trivikrama, 375.
Tryanuka, t. t. of Vai^hika system,
133.
Tsong-Kha-pa, 277.
Tukaram, 296, 300, 302, 374.
Tulsi Das, 317, 328, 381; a Smarta
Brahman, 328 ; became a Ramanandi
vairagi, 329 ; his Rdma-charit-nidnas,
329, 381; basis of the work, 329;
the religion is that of the Mediaeval
poems, 329 ; often expresses great
reverence for l§iva, 330 ; contains
many advaita phrases, 330; noble
conceptions in the poem, 330 ; quite
orthodox, 330 ; the vernacular GUd,
330 ; other works, 329, 381.
TuptJkd, of Kumarila, 169, 367.
Tuf%ydtltdvadhUta U., 364.
Turkestan, 104.
Twice-born castes, 31 ; education of, 31 ;
44<5
INDEX
f1esh*eatiD£ by, 8i ; literature of,
36 ft., 79 n, ; characteristic of in early
times, 37; the twice-born fall into
two groups, 81.
Uchchhishta-Ganapatyas, 270.
Udaipur, 306 n. 2.
Uddna, a book of Buddhist verse, 71,
393-
Uddnavargay 398.
Udasis, 340.
Udayanai author of the KusumdfijcUif
221, 222, 369, 370 ; assails Bhaskara,
221 ; other works, 223, 224, 370.
Uddyotakara, 178, 370 ; was a Pa^upata
teacher, 191.
Udgatfi, 6, 7, 14, 17) 18, 21 ; education
of, i8_f.
UdgUd A,f 193.
Ujjini, 260.
UjjvalafiUamaniy 376.
Ihna, wife of Siva, 47, 150, 197.
Umanandanatha, 358, 359, 389.
Umapati, title of ^iva, used for Uma-
pati l^ivacharya, q. v.
Umapati Dhara, 306, 378.
Umapati Sivacharya, one of the Achar-
yas of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta,
355 n- 4. 257» 258,386.
Umasvati, a Jain thinker, 136, 164, 219,
400; his date, 164; his sutra, 136,
164, 165.
Umd-ydmala T., 265.
Unknowable, the, i.e. the Atman in the
Upanishads, 56, 59; to be appre-
hended by yoga, 59.
Unmai-neri'Vilakka, 258, 386.
Unmai Vilakka, 257, 258, 386.
Upade^a, comm. on Sarvastivadin
Sutra Pit^a, 108.
Upadeia-kandatiy 280, 402.
Upadeiaratnamdldy 380.
Utadeiamatndkarat 402.
Upadeia-sahasr%, 171.
Upadeiaiataj 402.
Upagamas, 193.
Updti'pariprichchhd'Sutra^ 395.
Upamitibhavaprapaiichdkathd, 215,
401.
Upangas of Jain Canon, 399.
Upanishad Brdhmana, 27.
Upanishads, 364 ; the name, 54 ; rise of
the philosophy, 52 ; formed in free
discussions, 53; tsdcen into Vedic
schools, 53 ; therefore taught by
Brahmans only, and open to twice-
bom only, 54, 87, 244; the early
prose Upanishads, 54 ; date of, 55 ;
teaching o^ 55 ff. ; pessimism in, 57;
quality of, 57 ; verse Upanishads, 58 ;
date of, 58; teaching of, 58; philo-
sophy of, 59 ; yoga practices in, 59 ;
the Upanisluuis appended to the
Brahmanas as huttf 60, 126; their
teaching not systematic, ia6; later
Upanishads, 79 ; an early work which
summed up Up. teaching, 79 ; three
divergent groups of Upanishads, 80 ;
the philosophy called the Vedanta,
126; summed up in the VeddfUO"
sutras, 126; the Upanishads^ along
with the Gftd and the VeddntO'SMtras
forms the Canon of the Vedanta, 173 ;
commentaries, 121, 171, 323, 236.
Upapuranas, 139.
UpdsakadaSdy one of the Jain A&gas,
400.
Upasana, meditation; meditative wor-
ship, 253 n. 2.
Upasargdhara'Stotra, 400.
Upatissa, 393.
Upendra S,, 183.
Urddhva-li^ga, 103.
tjrddhva-pun^, the Bhagavata sect-
_ mark, 234.
Urddhvaretas, 103, 145 n. 4, 147 n. 1.
Ushas, 10, 21.
Ushnlsha-vijayii^thdrai^f 399.
Utpalacharya, 259, 386.
Utpala Vaishnava, 386.
Utradis, an order of DadGpanthi as-
cetics, 342.
Uttarddhyayana, 400.
Uttara Mimamsa, 124, ia6.
Uttara P, (Jain), 217 n. a, a 18, 119,
404.
Uttardrchika^ 18.
Uttara 7 antra, 397.
Uyyavandan (A.), 258, 385.
Uyyavandan (B.), 258, 385.
Vachana, Lingayat sermons in Kanar-
ese, 264, 387.
Vachaspatimi^ra, commentator, date,
176, 367, 368; works, 176, 177, 178,
288, 367, 368, 369, 370; position,
176.
Vachissara, 394.
Vacuity, the Mahayana philosophy, 1 14,
209; expressed in Ptajitaparamita
sQtras, 115, 116.
Vadagalais, 319, 320.
Vaibhashika, the name of the philo-
sophy of the Sarvastivadins, 108.
INDEX
447
Vaikhanasa, hermit, 29. See Vana-
prastha.
Vaikhanasa Dharfna-suiras^ 141, 365,
366.
Vaikhanasa Grihya-sutras^ 141, 365.
Vaikhanasa Samhitas, 142, 187 ; in
accordance with Vedic usage, 181 ;
used in some S. Indian temples, 181 ;
are probably Bhagavata manuals,
181, 374 ; ousted from many temples
by Ramanuja, 1S2, 244 ; still used in
some temples, 320 ; about a dozen
Samhitas survive, 321.
Vaikuntha, 185.
Vairaginis, 311.
Vairagis, 311, 327.
Vairochana, 273.
Vaisali, Buddhist Council at, 66.
Vaiseshika system, rise, 95, 369; meant
for householders, 13^ ; early manual,
now lost, 80 ; in didactic Epic, 96 ;
fundamental document, the Vaiieshi-
ka-sUtraj 133; system, 133 f.; origin-
ally atheistic, 134 ; becomes theistic
with Pra&astapada, 177, 178; other
manuals, 177, 223, 289; the Vaise-
shika combined with the Nyaya, 224,
289; literature, 369 f.
Vai§eshikasutray fundamental docu-
ment of system, 133, 370.
Vaiseshika-sutra-bhashya^ or Paddrtha-
dharma-saiigraka, 177, 369.
Vaiieshika-sHtropaskdra, 224, 370.
Vaishnava, adjective from Vishnu.
Vaishnava Das, 377.
Vaishnava incarnations, a series, 84,
Vaishnava literature, 143, 181, 228, 296,
373.
Vaishnava Sarhhitas, see Paficharatra
Samhitas.
Vaishnava sect, 86 ; heterodox, 82, 91,
98; emergence of Sakta ideas, 183.
Vaishnava worship, 48 ; in the GUd,
88 f.'
Vaish navatosh im, 376.
Vaislinavism, formed in Citd, 86 ; and
in didactic Epic, 97 ; no articulated
Vaishnava theology in Gitd^ 97.
Vaisyas, 21, 36; education of, 31;
duties of, 40.
Vait<hta-sutra, 42, 365.
Vajasaneyins, the school of the White
Yafus, 27, 54, 58.
Vajjalaggd, 215, 401.
Vajra, 211 ; its three senses, 211.
V^ajrahhairava Z!, 398.
Vajrabodhi, 210, 212.
Vajra^hchhedikd-prajhdpdramitd'SiUra^
159. 397-
Vajradhatvl&vari, 27211. 3.
Vajra-niantra-dhirusanti'Viara T'., 398.
Vajra pani, 273.
Vajrasattva, 272 n. 3.
VajraSekhara, 212.
VajrasiichJ, 116, 395.
VajrasfichJ (7., 364.
Vajrayogini, 272.
Valabhi, here the Jain Canon was
written and published, 163, 213.
Vallabha, 287, 312 ; his account of him-
self, 313 ; his four disciples, 316 ; his
books, 377.
Vallabhacharya, sect, 312 flF.; stand-
point called ^uddhadvaita, 313 ; doc-
trine of bhakti^ 313 ; of grsLce,pusAti,
313; theology, 313 f.; the Vallabha
heaven, 314; the cult, 314; mantra,
314; organization of the sect, 314;
the gurus, 314; called Maharajas,
314 ; worship of the Maharajas, 314 ;
immorality, 3153 318; the Rds-man-
tjatl^ 315; absorption of the Vish-
nusvamls, 315; literature, 316, 317,
376 ; Vallabha aspiration, 314.
Valmiki, 47.
Vamachari. left-hand ; epithet of the
original ^akta sect and its cult, 203,
268.
Vamadeva, 8.
Vdmakeivara 7"., 265, 356, 358, 388.
Vamana, the dwarf, 84 n, 2.
Vdmana P., 139, 179, 372.
Vaih§a Brdhmana^ 363.
Vamsivadana, 308, 376.
Vana, name of one of the ten orders of
Sankara's saonyasls, 1 74.
Vanaprastha, the word, 29 ; » hermit,
29, 47 ; the rule, 29 ; magic in the
practice, 33 ; continued to worship,
29, 53 ; austerities of, 59, 74; ahimsa,
76 ; place in ASramas, 81. *
Varadaraja, 304, 375.
VaradaidpanXya U., 206, 364, 390.
VaradottaraidpanXya U., 364, 390.
Varaha Mihira, 153, 390.
Vardha P., 139, 179, 310, 372; con-
tains ISakta material, 357, 389 ; con-
tains Mathurd'fndhdtmya^ 376.
Varaha S., 183 n. i, 336 n. I.
Varaha Timmappa Das, 375.
Varaha U.^ 364.
Vdrdh\ T.y 389.
Varatunga Pan^ya, 347, 383.
44«
INDEX
Vardhamana, 370.
Vardhamdfta P., 405.
Varivasyd-rahasyay 358, 3K9.
Varna, 5.
Varttandrhavantafia^ 395.
Varshaganya, a teacher of theistic Yoga,
seemingly author of the Shasktitaniraf
94, 368.
Varuna, 2, 3, 10, 11, 21.
Vasishtha, 8.
Vdsishtha Dharmasfiira, 80, 365.
Vasishtha S,, 388.
Vasnbandhu, a Baddhist leader, 129;
first a Sarvastivadin, then a Vijnana-
vadin, 161; date, 129; criticized
Vaibhashika philosophy, 156 ; his
work's, 158, 100, 161, 176, 394, 398.
Vasadeva, the father of Kfishna, 100.
Vasadeva, epithet of Krishna, 49; in
Panini, 49 ; in inscriptions, 84 n. 3 ;
an epithet of Vishnu, 49; origin of
the epithet, 50 ; in the doctrine of
Vyuha, 98, 184.
Vasudeva Ghosh, 308, 376.
Vasudeva HUtda^ 278, 280, 402.
Vasudeva Sarvabhauma, 289, 371 ; see
Sarvabhauma.
Vasudeva U., 234, 364, 374.
Vasugupta, 193, 386.
Vasumitra, 394.
VatapT, 216.
Vatsyayana*, 123 n. 2; 135, 370.
Vattakera, 166, 219, 403.
Vdtula A.y 193, 264,
Vayu, 10.
Vayu P., 139, 145, 372, 384 ; referred
to in Mahabharata, 156; its royal
genealogies of historical value, 137 ;
contains f^aiva material, 140, 145,
146, 147, 196.
Vedahgas, 365.
Vedanta, name of the philosophy of the
Upanishads, 60, 150 ; its influence,
114; literature, 126, 170, 221, 286,
367 ; the Canon, called Prasthana-
traya, 128; varieties of the philo-
sophy, 127, 128, 170 f.; influence,
158, 161, 273,278, 282 ; in the GUa,
90; admixture of Sankhya ideas, 228,
286, 287; the Vedanta in Europe, 288.
Vedanta-deSika, a teacher of the iSri-
Vaishnava sect, 189, 286, 319, 367,
380.
Veddnta-dtpay 379*
Vedanta- kalpalaiikdy 286, 368..
Veddnta-kalpataru, 222, 368.
Veddnta^kalpataru-parimaldj 368.
Veddnia'kaustubha, 222, 240^ 287,376.
Vedanta-kaustubha-prabhd, 376.
Veddnta-parijdtasaurabha, 240, 376.
Veddnta-ratnay 376.
Veddnta-sdra, 286, 368, 379.
Veddnta'Stddhdnta-mttkidvalJ, 368.
Vsddnta-sutra-anubhdshyaj 316, 377.
Veddnta'Sutrorhhdshyay 368.
Veddnta-sutra-bhashya of Vishnnsvami,
375.
Veddnta-siitraSy 126, 368; teaching,
127 ; influenced by Gltd^ 128; date,
94, 123 ; held to be inspired, 127 ; no
doctrine of Mdyd in sutras, 173;
along with the Upanishads and tLe
Gttdf forms the Canon of the Vedan-
ta, 173; is smritty not irutiy 173.
Veddnta-tattva-sdray 380,
Vtddrtha-sahgrakay 242, 379.
Vedas, eternity erf, 125.
Vedasdra- V Jra-Saiva- Chin(dtnam,2fi*i.
Veda-vyasa, 369.
Vedi, 14.
Vedic Schools, see Schools.
Vegetarianism, 263.
Vema Reddis, 347.
Vemana, 346, 383.
Venkata Das, 375.
Vehkata-nalha, 380.
Venkatefrv^ara, a temple in Timpati,
181 ; Vishnu and ^iva were wor-
shipped_in it as equals, 181, 320.
Venkaya Arya, 304.
Vernaculars, 284.
Vibhajjavadin school, a Baddhist school
in Ceylon, 68.
Vibhahgay 393.
Vibhasha : comm. on Sarvastivadin Vin-
aya and Abhidharma, loS.
Vibhdshd-idstra, 107, 108.
Vibhuti, 261.
Vichdrasdgatay 382,
Vidagdha^rnddhavay 376.
Vidhi, 25, 251.
Vidhi-rasdyanay 286, 367.
Vidhiviveka of MandanamiSra, 169,367.
Vidyananda, 217, 219, 371, 404.
Vidyanatha, 268, 358. •
Vidyapati, 306, 307, 308, 378.
Vidydvaijayantly 377.
VidyeSvaras, 185.
Vijaya A., 193.
Vijaya Das, 375.
Vijayanagara, 285, 312.
VijHdna Bhairava Tantra, 35a, 386.
Vijuana Bhikshu, 228, 287, 289, 390,
368, 369.
INDEX
449
Vijndnd-gitdf 373.
Vijndndmrita^ 287, 368.
Vijnanavada Buddhism, 273, 274 ; liter-
ature, 397.
Vikhanas, 39.
Vikramarjuna Vijaya, 282, 404.
VikramaSila, a Tantrik Buddhist Univ-
ersity, 225, 272.
Vimala ^., 193.
Vimala Suri, 165, 400.
Vi?fidnavatthu, 392.
Vimiakdrikdprakaranay 398.
Vind-venba^ 258, 386.
Vinaya Pitaka, the Discipline basket of
the Buddhist canon, 66, 67, 68, 391;
source of, 69; Buddhaghosha*s comm.
in Chinese, 155, 392 ; Vinaya of
many schools, 207.
Vinayavijaya, 403.
Vindhya mountains, 149.
Vindhyachal, 283 n. i.
Vipdka^ one of the Jain Ahgas,
400.
Virabhadra, 120, 400.
Virachandra, 309, 311.
Vxracharita^ 401,
Virakta Jaiigamas, 262.
Viraktas, an order of Dadupanthi asce-
tics,^ 342.
Vxra-Saiva-dchdra-kaustubha^ 387.
Vtra-Saiva-dchdra-pradlpikd^ 387.
Vtra-Saiva-chandrikd, 387.
V%ra-Saiva'dhar77ia-Hromaniy 387 .
Vlra-Saiva-mata-prakdiikdy 387.
Vjra- Saiva-mata-sahgraha, 387.
Viraiaivdmrita, 387.
Vtra-Saiva-pradipikd, 387.
Vira Saivas (A), 191, 259, 386; mean-
ing of the name, 261 ; called also
Lihgayats, 191, 259 ; call themselves
Mahe^varas, not Pasupatas, 191 ; use
Agamas, 191 ; don9t accept doctrine
of incarnations of Siva, 191 ; rise of
the sect, 259 ; their monasteries, 259,
260 f.; gurus, 261, 262; theology,
261, 264; temples, 262; the six
sthalas or stages, 261, 264 ; worship,
261 ; linga, 261 ; reliquary, 261 ;
ashtavarna, 261 ; meditation, 261 ;
padodaka, 261 ; social organization
262 1., 264 ; marriage, 263 ; dining,
263; burial, 263 ; vegetarians, 263;
abstainers, 263 ; child-marriage, 263 ;
widow-remarriage, 263 ; release, 263 ;
literature, 264, 353, 386 ; Vachanas,
264 ; Puranas, 264.
Vlra Saivas (B), of the Right-hand
Sakta movement, 358.
Vxra - Saiva • sarvotkarsha 'pradlpikdy
387.
Virasena, 217.
Virastava, 400.
VireSvara, 373.
Vxreh)ara Paddhatiy 373.
Virupaksha Pandit, 353, 387.
Visamvddaiataka^ 403.
Vi^sha, 1. 1. of VaiSeshika system, 134.
Vishnu, a Vedic god, 10, 21, 22, 32,
47i 48, 58, 97 ; in second stage of
Epic, 83 ; in Rdmdyana, book I, 84 ;
in the Trimurti, 148 f. ; centre of
the first real sect, 81, 84; identified
with Brahman and with Krishna
in the GJtd, 86, 97; his thousand
names, 97 ; a panegyric, 97 ; a hymn
of praise, 97 ; conjoined with Sesha
and Brahma in didactic Epic, 98 ; his
incarnations, 84, 85, 86, 98, 145 ; has
four forms, 102 ; adored by Bhagava-
tas as equal with .4iva, 142 f., 175,
181, 182 ; one of the Five Gods, 179;
often represented in worship by the
^alagrama, 293 n. 2 ; sometimes by
a tortoise, 294 n. i.
Vishnu-bhakti, taught by all the bhakti
sects to ^udras and Panchamas, 244,
Vishnu-Brahman, 149.
Vishnukranta, 356.
Vishnu P., 139, 372; date, 140, 143;
is a Pancharatra Vaishnava work,
140, 143, 144 ; contains much ' cos-
mic' material, 137; best represents
the old Puranas, 144 ; life of Krishna
appended to royal genealogies, 138 ;
gives much space to Krishna-legend,
I43f'>i5^; theology, 144; relation
to GUdy 144 f.
Vishnu Purl, 229 n. i, 302, 375.
Vishnurahashyay 305, 375.
Vishnusihha, 354.
Vishnusmriti, 141 f,, 366.
Vishnusvami, founder of Vishnusvami
sect, 222, 234, 235, 238, 287; a
dualist, 236; his works, 238, 287, 375.
Vishnusvami sect, 235; recognize Rid-
ha, 237 ; their mantras, 235, 239 ;
their literature, 238, 304, 375; Sam-
pradaya, 327 ; their sect-mark, 304;
their monasteries, 304 ; influence, 307,
312; hold the samuchchhaya doctrine,
221 ; decline of the sect, 304 ; a few
ascetics left, 304.
Vishnutattva S,, 184.
45°
INDEX
Vishnnvardhxuia, 345.
Vi^iditadvaita form of the Vedanta
philosophy, 241, 287, 297, 319, 326,
349-
Visuddhimaggay 154, 393.
Vi&vambhara Mi6ra, 307.
Vi^vamitra, 8.
Vihananda T*., 384.
Visvanatha PaficMnana, 289, 370, 371.
Vi&vapaniy 373.
Vi^varadhya, one of the five original
Ling^yat ascetics, 260.
VUvasarb, 71, 354, 389.
VUardgastutiy 2S0, 402.
Vithobk, the Vishnu of Pandharpur, 300.
Vitthal, 301.
Vitthal Das, 375.
Vitthalnatha, 314, 316, 377; his four
disciples, 316.
Vivasvant, 2.
Vivekachintdmaniy 383, 387.
VivekamaHjarl^ 280, 40a.
Vivekananda, 357.
VivekasindhUy 296, 373,
Vivekavildsa, 280, 402.
Vopadeva, 231, 234, 269, 297, 359,
374.
Vrindavana Dasa, 310, 377.
Vrishnidaid, 400.
Vritti Prabhdkaray 382.
Vyakarana, 42.
Vyapi-Vaikuntha, the Vallabha heaven,
314-
Vyasa-raja-svami, 375.
Vyavahdra, 400.
Vyonia S,, 236 n. i.
Vyuha, lit. 'expansion', a Vaishnava
doctrine, 98, 99, 184.
Warangal, 265.
Warkaris, 302.
Western Paradise, 117.
White Island, 99.
White YajuSy 20, 2^,
Widows, remarriage of, prohibited, 41 ,
81 ; ascetic life of, 81 ; remarriage
permitted, 263.
Women, had no part in the ancient
Hindu education, 31 ; some shared in
philosophic discussions, 53.
Yab-yum, 265.
Yddavohhashyay 222, 368.
Yadava-giri, in Mysore, 248.
Yddava-giri Mdhdtmya found in the
Ndrada and the Matsya Purdms^
190.
Yadava Praka^ 223, 243, 243 n., 368, |
379-
Yaga, worship, 186.
YdjHavalkya Dhamiaidstra^ 141, ao6,
366.
YdjHavalkya U,y 364.
Yajurvtday 15, 30, 363 ; age of its for-
mulae, 2 1 ; their magic power, 19,
3 1 ; relation to Rik, 30 ; formation
of, 20, 35 ; Samhiias and Brahmanas
of the Yajurvedoy 35, 36 ; religioo,
3oflf., 30 ff., 363; ritual, 363.
Yajus = Yajuroeda.
Yama, 2, 23.
Yamaka, 393.
Yamala, 265.
Yamala Tantras, 265.
Yamun2charya, 241, 242 ; his works,
24i> 379.
Yantra, a diagram possessing occult
significance and power, used in sects
under Sakta influence, 186, 189, 20a,
203, 355. 357» 358.
Yaiastilakay 279, 282, 404.
Ya^omitra, 161, 394.
Yati-dharfna-samuchchhaya^i^^ n*>379'
Yatlndramatadipikdy 320, 380.
Yavanas, i.e. loaians, Greeks, 83.
Yoga, the word, 59 ; Yoga practices, 59,
60, 132 ; purpose of these practices,
132 ; Yoga meditation on Otn^ 103.
Yoga philosophy, 44; rise of, 61; in
Arthaidstray 93 ; an early manual,
now lost, 80 ; in the- GUd^ 90 ; in
Maitrdyana 17,, 93 ; in didactic Epic,
93» 97 » probably atheistic origin-
^%) 93; theistic in didactic £^c,
93; in Chulikd U,, 93; in Yoga
Upanishads, 94 ; the chief document
is the Yoga-siitraSy 131 ; the system
of the siitras, 132 f. ; relation to San-
khya, 132 ; open to all Hindus and
Outcastes, 133 ; Yoga ascetics called
Yogis, 133, 289 ; other manuals, 177,
223,289,369; described by Albemni,
223.
Yoga Upanishads, 80, 94 f., 301.
Yoga-bhdshyay see Yoga'Siitra-bhdshya,
Yogachara, a name for the Vijiianavida,
133, 160.
Yogdchdra-bhumi-idstra of Asanga,
160, 397.
Yogachiiifdmani U»y 364.
Yogaja, name of an Agama, 193.
Yogakundall U*y 364.-
INDEX
451
Yoga-tnanjar^^ 384.
Yoganidra, sister of Krishna, 14911. 10.
Yoga-pada, one _di vision of the contents
of Samhitas, Agamas, Tantras, 184.
Yogarahashya, 379.
Yogaraja, 386.
Yogasdrasahgraha, 289, 369.
Yoga-idstra, 280, 401.
Yogaiikhd 17,^^1^ 364.
Yogasutra, 123, 131, 164, 369; date,
94, 123, 131 f.
Yoga-sutra-bhdshya, 94, 177, 369.
Yogatattva U,^ 95, 364.
Yogdvdchdra^ 394.
Yoga-vdrttikat 369.
Yoga- Vasish{ha^Rdmdyana^ 222, 228,
250, 296, 373.
Yogdvatdra, 397.
Yogi, an ascetic of the Yoga school,
I33» 289.
Yogita T., 354, 389.
Yudhishthira, 151.
Yugas, 146
Yiikiyanuidsattaj 403.
Zoroaster, 3, 12, 152.
Zoroastrianism, 2, 12, 287; in India,
168.
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